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M^i-i 



WORKS OF PROF. F. W. WOLL. 



A Handboolc for Farmers and Dairymen. Fifth Edition. 
New York, 1908. xv + 496pp. $1.50. 

Grotenfelt's Modern Dairy Practice. American Editicr. 
byF. W. WoLL. Third Edition. New York, 1905. 286 pp. 
$2.00. 

A Book on Silage. Second Edition. Chicago, 111., 1900. 
234 pp. $1.00. 

. Jointly with Prof. E. H. Farrington. 

Testing Milk and its Products. Sixteenth Edition. Madi- 
son, Wis., 1906. 269 pp. $1.00. 



A 
HANDBOOK 



FOR 



FARMERS AND DAIRYMEN 



F. W. WOLL, 



Processor of Agricultural Chemistry, University of Wisconsin; 
Chemist to Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment Station. 

WITH THE ASSISTANCE OF 

WELL-KNOWN SPECIAlISTSo 



Wit^ Sllustrattons. 



FIFTH EDITION, "REVISED. 
FIRST THOUSAND. 



NEW YORK : 

JOHN WILEY & SONS. 

London: CHAPMAN & HALL, Limited. 

1908. 



c,- 



V.I8HARY of OeNGRESS) 



l«vu CODies HbCttiv^ 

SEF .24 )yUb 

CLASiN CC AAC. n^ 






Copyright, 1807, 1900, 1907, 1908, 

BY 

F. W. WOLL. 



Sobrrt iSrummiinli anii Cotnttang 
2?n0 lorfc 



PREFACE TO FIRST EDITION. 



The effort of the author has been to make this small 
volume a compendium of useful information on farm and 
dairy topics. Brief discussions on subjects of importance 
and interest to farmers and dairymen have been intro- 
duced, and useful facts, tables, formulas, receipts, agricul- 
tural statistics, etc., are given to such an extent as the plan 
of the work permitted. Valuable data scattered through- 
out our agricultural literature, in the publications of our 
experiment stations and the scientific divisions of the 
United States Department of Agriculture, as well as in 
other public documents, and in farm papers and standard 
works, have been gathered in this Handbook and arranged 
in such a manner as to make them easily accessible and 
convenient for reference purposes. 

The present volume is founded on the Dairy and Agri- 
cultural Calendars previously published by the author. 
Much new material, both original and compiled, has, how- 
ever, been Included, and special articles, tables, statistics, 
etc., have been verified and brought up to date, making 
the book, as it is hoped, of considerable value, and secur- 
ing for it as favorable a reception as was accorded its pre- 
decessors. 

The author takes this opportunity of thanking the follow- 
ing specialists who have so materially increased the useful- 

m 



IV PREFACE. 

ncss of the book by comprehensive, concise contributions on 
subjects in their particular lines of study : Professors W. 
H. Caldwell, J. A. Craig, John W. Decker, L. H. Dewey, F. 
H. Farrington, B. E. Fernow, E. S. Goff, A. W. Richter, 
H. L. Russell, Thos. Shaw, Wm. P, Wheeler; and Messrs. 
John Boyd. W. G. Clark, M.D.C., N. S. Fish, J. D. Fred- 
criksen, H. B. Gurler, S. Hoxie, J. Noer, M.D., J. H. 
Pickrell, H. B. Richards, L. P. Sisson, J. McLain Sniith, 
and C. M. Winslow. 



PREFACE TO FOURTH EDITION. 



The present edition of the Handbook has been carefully 
revised, with a view to including therein only the latest and best 
information on agii.u tural topics of importance to American 
farm rs. A number of new subjects have been added, such as 
market c'asses of farm animals, government standards of purity 
for dairy products, the "sliding-scale" overrun, commercial 
grades of grain, hay, straw, and other agricultural products, 
etc., and tables and articles have been brought up to date where 
better data were available. It is hoped that the changes and 
additions made will further increase the usefulness of this little 
volume to American farmers and students of agriculture. 

F. W. WOLL. 

Tanuary, 1907. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 



PART I. AGRICULTURE. 

I. FEEDING STUFFS. 

PAGE 

Composition of Feeding Stuffs i 

Table Showing Average Composition oi American Feeding Stuffs. . 3 

Ready Reference Table of Composition of Feeds 6 

Classification of Cattle Foods 1 1 

Classification of Concentrates According to Protein Content 11 

Feeding Standards for Farm Animals 12 

Rations for Dairy Cows 14, 16 

Calculation of Components of Feed Rations 14 

Average Weights of Concentrated Feeding Stuffs 18 

Food Requirements of Farm Animals 18 

Comparative Value of Cattle Foods ig 

Calculated Value of Frtiits Compared with Hay, Grains, etc 19 

Prices of Cereals per Bushel and per Ton 20 

Valuation of Feeding Stuffs 20 

II. FARM ANIMALS. 

Characteristics of Breeds of Live Stock. Prof. John A. Craig, late 

of Iowa Agricultural College 21 

Market Classes of Farm Animals 28 

Table for Estimating Live Weight of Cattle 35 

Determination of the Age of Faryi Animals by Their Teeth 36 

Body Temperature of Farm Animals 38 

Duration and Frequency of Heat in Farm Animals 38 

Period of Incubation of Poultry 38 

Gestation Calendar 3g 

Feeding and General Care of Poultry. Prof. Wm. P.Wheeler, of 

N. Y. (Geneva) Experiment Station 41 

Loss in Weight of Eggs During Incubation 46 

Standard Weights of Poultry 47 

Synopsis of Breeds of Poultry 48 

Heredity. Prof. Thos. Shaw, late of Minnesota Experiment Sta- 
tion 48 

V 



VI TABLE OF CONTENTS. 

III. VETERINARY SCIENCE. 

PAGB 

Common Diseases of Farm Animals. W. G. Clark, M.D.C., Mari- 
nette, Wis - , 

Veterinary Remedies and Doses. W. G. Clark, M.D.C., Marinette, 



Wis. 



63 



Suppression of Hog Cholera and Swine Plague 07 

Directions for making Tuberculin Tests 69 

List of Disinfectants 70 

Rules for the Disinfection of Stables 71 

Regulations for the Government of Dairies and Dairy Farms in the 

District of Columbia 71 

IV. FIELD CROPS. 

Quantity of Seed Required to the Acre 74 

Seed Mixtures for Hay and Permanent Pastures 75 

Important Data as to Field Crops 77 

The Weight and Average Composition of Ordinary Crops, in Pounds 

per Acre 80 

Soiling Crops Adapted to Northern New England States 81 

Time of Planting and Feeding Soiling Crops « 82 

Replacing Winter-killed Clover 82 

Crops for Partial Soiling for Illinois 82 

Succession of Soiling Crops for Dairy Cows. 84 

Capacity of Cylindrical Silos 85 

Relation of Horizontal Feeding Area and Number of Cows Kept 

for Silos 24 and ?,o Feet Deep 85 

Relation between Size of Silos and Number of Cows They Will Keep 86 

Number of Plants or Hills for an Acre of Ground 86, 87 

Yield of a Good Crop of Farm Products per Acre 87 

V. HORTICULTURE. 

Gardener's Planting Tables 88 • 

Distances Apart for Fruit-trees, Time Required to Bear Fruit, and 

Longevity 90 

Time of Germination of Vegetable Seeds and Maturity Table 90 

Average Yields per Acre of Various Crops 91 

A Combined Fruit and Vegetable Garden 92 

A Vegetable Forcing Calendar 93 

Seasons of Varieties of Apples in Various Storages 94 

Packages Used in Shipping Fruit 94 

Relation of Specific Gravity, Dry Matter, and Starch Content of 

Potatoes 95 

■.Specific Gravity, Sugar Content, and Boiling-point of Maple Sirup. 96 

Weight of Sugar Obtained from 100 lbs. of Maple Sirup 97 

Sorghum Sirup Obtained from Juice of Different Densities 97 

Temperatures to which Perishable Goods may be Subjected With- 
out Injury 98 

Temperatures Injurious to Plants 99 

Best Temperatures for Preserving Horticultural Products 100 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. Vll 



PAGE 

The Preservation of Soft Fruits for Exhibition Purj^oses loo 

The Standards of the Baltimore Canned Goods Exchange 102 

Packages Used in Shipping Fruit 103 

VI. SEEDS. 

Seed-testing for the Farmer, by the late Gilbert H. Hicks, of U. S. 

Department of Agriculture 104 

Standards of Purity of Seeds 106 

Table of Germination Standards log 

Number, Weight, Cost of Grass Seeds, and Amount to Sow per 

Acre 109 

Notes on the Adaptability and Uses of Grasses and Clovers in 

Vitality of Seeds if Properly Kept 113 

Seedsmen's Customary Weights per Bushel of Seeds 114 

Weight and Size of Garden Seeds 115 

Average Time Required for Garden Seeds to Germinate 115 

Yield of Seeds from an Acre 115 

VII. WEEDS. 

Table of Noxious Weeds. L. H. Dewey, Assistant Botanist U. S. 

Department of Agriculture 116 

VIII. ENEMIES OF FARM CROPS. 

Treatments for Injurious Insects and Fungous Diseases of Plants, 

by the late Prof. E. S. Goff, of Wisconsin Experiment Station.. . 121 

Spraying Calendar 123 

A Cheap Orchard-spraying Otitfit 126 

Prevention of Oat -smut 127 

The Formaldehyd Treatment for the Prevention of the Smuts of 

Cereal Grains and of Potato Scab tor. 



Fighting the Chinch-bug by Means of Kerosene Emulsion 130 

IX. FORESTRY. 

Forestry for Farmers. Dr. B. E. Femow, late Director N. Y. 

State College of Forestry j , j 

Number of Trees on an Acre i,p 

Fuel Value and Specific Gravity of Some of the More Important 

Woods of the United States j ,5 

Distance Table for Tree-planting i^g 

States and Territories Observing Arbor Day, with Dates 130 

Forest-fire Laws in the United States 140 

X. MANURES AND FERTILIZERS. 

Manures and Fertilizers 144 

Approximate Losses of Fertilizing Materials in Different Systems 

of Farming j.- 

Average Chemica Composition of American Soils 146 

Manuria- Value of Feeding Stuffs j .- 

Fertilizing Constituent of Feeding Stuffs and Farm Products. .... 143 



Till TABLE OF CONTENTS. 



PAGE 

Amount of Soil Ingredients Withdrawn by Various Crops 150 

Amount of Fertilizing Materials Contained in Different Crops 

Grown on One Acre 151 

Farmyard Manure Required to Replace Ingredients Abstracted 

from the Soil by an Acre of Different Crops 152 

Amount and Quality 6f Manure Produced by Sto'.k 152 

Composition, Amount, and Value of Manure Produced by Differ- 
ent Kinds of Farm Animals 153 

Quantities of Nitrogen and Ash Constituents Voided by Animals. . 153 

Percentage Composition of Commercial Fertilizing Materials 154 

Exhaustion of Fertilizers 156 

Equivalent Quantities of Fertilizing Materials 157 

Proportion of Plant Food Recommended for Crops 158 

Valuation of Manures and Fertilizers 158 

Trade Values of Fertilizing Ingredients in Raw Materials and 

Chemicals, 1 908 159 

Conversion Table for Calculating Fertilizing Ingredients 1 60 

Prices of Nitrate of Soda on the Ammoniate Basis 1 60 

XL AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING. 

Drainage: Reasons for Tile-draining Land 161 

Number of Rods and of Tiles per Acre, with Drains at Various 

Distances Apart 162 

Size of Tiles Required for Draining under Average Conditions. . 162 

Table of Size of Tile Pipe of Main Drain 163 

Rule for Obtaining Size of Main Pipes 163 

Number of Acres which a Tile of a Given Diameter and Per Cent 

Grade will Drain when Used as an Outlet 164 

Number of Acres Drained by Tiles Removing i in. Depth of 

Water in Twenty-four Hours 165 

Number of Acres Drained by Open Ditches. 166 

Advice to Land O-wners About to Construct Drains 1 68 

Points to Note in Planning a Drainage System 169 

Sizes of Drain-pipe Reqtiired for Culverts in Proportion to 

Capacity and Fall 1 69 

Areas from which -J in. of Water will be Removed in Twenty-four 
Hours by Outlet Tile Drains of Different Diameters and 

Lengths with Different Grades 1 70 

Rise of the Slope for 100 Feet 171 

Quantity of Earth Removed per Rod of Drains of Various Dimen- 
sions 171 

Limit of Size of Tile to Grade and Length 172 

Rainfall. , 172 

Windmills: Table Showing the Force and Velocity of Wind 173 

Number of Square Feet and Acres Irrigated by Windmills of 

Different Sizes 173 

Table Showing Capacity of Windmills 1 74 

Table Showing Economy of Windmills 175 

Nominal Horse-power Required for the Discharge of Given 

Quantities of Water with Lifts o£ 10 and 20 Ft 176 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. ix 



PAGE 

Irrigation: Definition of Technical Terms 176 

Carrying Capacity of Pipes 179 

Flow of Water Through Straight Pipes 179 

Power Required to Raise Water from Deep Wells by Pumping. . i 80 

Approximate Cost of Different Kinds of Pipe used for Irrigation. iSo 
Average Cost per Mile of Constructing Irrigation Canals and 

Ditches , i So 

Capacity of Windmills and Pumps 181 

The California Weir Table 182 

Capacity of Cisterns and Tanks 182 

Capacity of Cisterns in Barrels, per Foot in Djpth 1S3 

Roads: Road-making 183 

Importance of Good Roads 185 

Tractive Force Required for Carriages 185 

Fraction of the Weight of a Vehicle and Load Required to Move 

Same on a Level Road 186 

Tractive Power of Horses at Different Speeds 186 

Effect of Inclination on Tractive Force 187 

Effects of Surface on Tractive Force 1 88 

Cost of Hauling Farm Produce in the United States 188 

Transportation on the Farm 189 

Labor Done by one Horse on Canals, Railroads, and Turnpikes. . 189 

Labor Done by Team in Plowing 189 

The Effect of Wide Wagon Tires 190 

Average Quantity of Stone Required to Keep Roads in Repair. . 190 

Interior Dimensions of Farm Buildings 191 

Recipe for Whitewash 191 

Table of Cut Nails 192 



XIL HUMAN FOODS. 

Composition of Human Food Materials 193, 198 

Percentages of Nutrients, Water, and Refuse in Food Materials. . . 197 

Pecuniary Economy of Food 200 

Amounts of Nutrients Furnished for 25 Cents in Food Materials. . . 201 

Dietary Standards 203 

Summary of American Dietary Studies 203 

Diagram of a Good Steer's Carcass as Cut up and Priced in East- 
em Markets 204 

Diagrams of Cuts of Veal, Mutton, and Pork 205 

Live Weight and Dressed Weight of Steers of Different Breeds 

and Ages 206 

Proportion of Beef to the Live Weight of Cattle 206 

Comparative Results Obtained with Fattening Animals 207 

Live Weight and Gains Made by Swine 207 

Proportions of the Various Parts of Cattle, Sheep, and Swine. . . . 208 



X TABLE OF CoNTEi^TS. 

PART II. DAIRYING. 

I. DAIRY COWS. 

PAGE 

On the Origin and Characteristics of the Different Breeds of Dairy- 
Cattle 211 

I. Jersey Cattle. By the Author 211 

II. Guernsey Cattle. Prof. W. H. Caldwell, Sec'y 214 

III. Holstein-Friesian Cattle. M. H. Gardner, Supt. Adv. Reg. 218 

IV. Ayrshires. C. M. Winslow, Sec'y 222 

V. Shorthorns as Dairy Cows. J. H. Pickrell, Sec'y 224 

VI. Red Polled Cattle. J. McLain Smith, Sec'y 227 

VII. Devon Cattle. L. P. Sisson, Sec'y 230 

VIII. Dutch Belted Cattle. H. B. Richards, Sec'y 232 

IX. Brown-Swass Cattle. N. S. Fish, Sec'y 234 

Yield of Milk and Fat from Dairy Cows 236 

Results of Tests of Dairy Breeds Conducted by American Experi- 
ment Stations 237 

Results of Breed Tests Conducted at World's Columbian Exposi- 
tion, 1893 238 

Results of "Cow Demonstration" at La. Purchase Exposition, St. 

Louis, 1904 239 

Highest Record for Yield of Fat Made by any Cow in a Public Test 

in America 239 

Official Milk and Butter Records of Holstein Jersey, Guernsey, and 

Ayrshire Cows 240 

Results of English Milking Trials 241 

Requirements for Admission to the Advanced Register of Ameri- 
can Cattle Clubs 241 

Average per Cent of Fat and Production of Milk and Butter Fat by 

Pure-bred Dairy Cows, per Breed 242 

Average Percentage Composition of Milk from Different Breeds. . . 242 

Method of Judging the Value of Dairy Cows 243 

Buying and Selling Cows by Tests of Their Milk 244 

Fifty Dairy Rules 244 

11. MILK. 

Percentage Composition of Various Kinds of Milk 248 

Average Analyses of American Samples of Dairy Products 248 

Average Composition of Cows' Milk, with Variations 249 

Composition of Morning and Evening Milk, and of Morning, Noon, 

and Evening Milk 249 

Composition of Different Parts of the Same Milkings 249 

Calculation of Components of Cows' Milk 250 

Relation of Fat to Casein and Other Solids 250 

Fertilizing Ingredients in Dairy Products 251 

Composition of Colostrum , .■,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,...,,. , 251 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. XI 



PAGE 

Composition of Ash of Cows' Milk and Cdlostrum 251 

A Chapter on Milk Testing 252 

Table for Converting N. Y. Board of Health Lactometer Degrees to 

Quevenne Lactometer Degrees 255 

Temperature Correction Table for Specific ^Gravity of Milk 256 

Calculation of Total Solids of Milk 25S 

Table for Calculating Solids not Fat from Specific Gravity and Fat 260 

Calculation of Specific Gravity of Milk Solids 261 

Standards for Dairy Products 262 

Government Standards of Purity for Milk and its Products 264 

Adulteration of Milk 267 

Ranges of the Variations in the Composition of Herd Milk 268 

Tables for Converting Quarts of Milk into Poimds, and vice versa. . 269 

Milk Prices by Measures 269a 

Relative Value of Milk and Cream of Different Fat Contents. 269b 
Amounts of Milk, Cream, or Skim-milk to be used in Modifying 

Milk 270 

Standardization of Milk 271 

Rules and Regulations for Care of Cows and Handling of Milk 272 

III. CREAM. 

Percentage Composition of Cream and Other Dairy Products 273 

Yield of Cream from Milk of Difi'erent Richness 274 

Calculation of Per Cent Fat in Cream 275 

Hand and Power Cream Separators on the American Market, 1907 276 

Formulas for Finding the Fat Content of Cream 278 

Formula for Diluting Cream to a Desired Fat Content 279 

Handling and Care of Cream Separators. J. D. Frederiksen, Mgr. 

Chr. Hansen's Laboratory, Little Falls, N. Y 279 

Per Cent Fat in Centrifugal Skim-milk 280 

Loss of Butter Caused by Inefficient Skimming 285 

Standardization of Cream 286 

Steam-boiler and Engine Management. Prof. A. W. Richter, of 

the University of Wisconsin 286 

On the Preservation of Milk and Cream by Heat. Dn H. L. Rus- 
sell of Wisconsin Experiment Station 290 

Directions for the Sterilization of Milk 293 

Quantity of Water or Ice Required for Cooling Milk or Cream. . . . 294 

IV. BUTTER. 

Butter-making. H. B. Gurler, ex-President Illinois State Dairy- 
men's Association 295 

On the Use of Pure Cultures in Butter- and Cheese-making 297 

Boyd's Process of Cream-ripening. John Boyd. Chicago, 111 301 

The Alkaline Tablet Test of Acidity in Milk or Cream. Prof. E. H. 

Farrington, of Wisconsin Dairy School 304 

Directions for the Use of Manns' Test for Ascertaining the Acidity 

of Cream 306 



Xll TABLE OF CONTENTS. 



PAGE 

Percentage Composition of Butter 307 

Average Chemical Composition of Sweet-cream and Sour-cream 

Butter 307 

Analyses of American Premium Butters 308 

Analyses of Foreign Samples of Butter 308 

Commercial Grades of Butter 309 

Formula for Calculating the Yield of Butter 311 

Conversion Factor for Calculating Yield of Butter from the Yield 

of Butter Fat 311 

Yield of Butter from 100 Pounds of Cream of Different Richness. . 311 
Yield of Butter Corresponding to Yield of Butter Fat, per Day and 

per Week 313 

Value of for Specific Gravities 1.019 to 1.0399 313 

Relation of Fat Content to Acidity of Skim-milk, Milk, and Cream. 313 

The Sliding Scale Overrun 314 

Comparative Prices of Milk, Cream, Butter-fat, and Butter.... 314 
Pounds of Milk Required for Making One Pound of Butter. . .3^5, 316 

Distribution of Milk Ingredients in Butter-making 316 

Score for Judging Butter 316 

English Scale of Points for Judging Butter 317 

Score in Judging Proficiency of Butter-makers 317 

Analyses of American Dairy Salts 318 

Temperatures at which Dairy Products should be Stored in Cold 

Storage 318 

V. CHEESE. 
How American Cheese is Made. Prof. John W. Decker, of Ohio 

Dairy School 319 

A. Factory or Cheddar Cheese 319 

B. Cheese Made on the Farm 321 

Causes of Tainted Milk 322 

Detecting Bad Milk. Directions for Operating the Wisconsin Curd 

Test 322 

The Fermentation Test 324 

Determination of Humidity in Cheese-curing Rooms 326 

Table Showing Relative Humidity of the Air 327 

Score for Judging Cheese 329 

Percentage Composition of Cheese 329 

Varieties and Analyses of Cheese 330 

Distribution of Ingredients in Cheese-making 330 

Formulas for Finding Yield of Cheddar Cheese 331 

Yield of Different Kinds of Cheese from 100 lbs. of Milk 332 

Average Loss of American Cheddar Cheese in Curing 3^,3 

Loss in Weight of Different Kinds of Cheese During Curing 333 

Yield of Cheese from, and Relative Cheese Value of, Milk of Different 

Richness 3.14 

Synopsis of Manufacture of Principal Varieties of Cheese 336 

The Cheese Market of the United States 336c! 

Commercial Grades of American Cheddar Cheese... 336a 

Quantities of Whey to be Returned to Patrons 337 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. Xlll 

VI. MANAGEMENT OF CREAMERIES AND CHEESE 
FACTORIES. 

PAGE 

Directions for Taking and Preserving Composite Samples of Milk 

in Creameries and Cheese Factories 338 

Payment for Milk at Creameries and Cheese Factories 340 

Methods of Payment for Milk at Cheese and Butter Factories 341 

Price of Milk of Different Richness per Hundred Pounds 343 

Directions for Making Dividends in Creameries and Cheese Factories 345 
Yield of Butter from 100 lbs. Milk, according to Different Overruns 346 

Table Showing Average Per Cent of Fat in Milk 347 

Suggestions to Patrons of Cheese Factories and Creameries 349 

By-laws and Rules for Co-operative Creamery Associations 351 

By-laws and Rules for Co-operative Cheese Factories 354 

Rules for Patrons and Instructions to Cream or Milk Gatherers. . . 356 



PART III. GENERAL TOPICS. 

I. CONSTITUTIONS OF AGRICULTURAL ASSOCIATIONS. 

Constitution and By-laws of Agricultural Clubs 359 

Constitution of Village-improvement Societies 364 

Constitution of Road Leagues 365 

Co-operative Breeders' Association 3670 

Dairy Test Associations 367!? 

II. MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS AND TABLES. 

Explanation of Flag and Whistle Signals Adopted by the U. S. 

Weather Bureati 368 

Explanation of Storm and Hurricane Warnings 369 

List of Headquarters of State Weather Services 370 

Beneficial and Harmful Hawks and Owls 370 

How Patents are Issued 371 

Legal Holidays 375 

What to do in Case of Accidents. J. Noer, M.D., Stoughton, Wis. 377 

Treatment for Poisoning 380 

Interest Tables 382 

Wages by the Week and the Day 383 

Number of Days bfetween Dates within Two Years 384 

Domestic and Foreign Postage 385 

Postal and Express Money Order Rates 386 

III. WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 

Customary System of Weights and Measures 387 

Metric System of Weights and Measures 388 

Conversion of U. S. Weights and Measures to Metric, and vice versa 389 

Kilograms Converted into Potmds, and vice versa 390 

Inches Reduced to Decimds of a Foot 390 

Ounces Reduced to Decimals of a Pound < 3go 

W^cight and Measure Conversion Table 391 



XIV TABLE OF CONTENTS. 



PAGE 

Table of Reciprocals of Numbers 392 

Comparisons of Fahrenheit, Centigrade, and Reaumur Thermom- 
eter Scales 392 

Government Land Measures 396 

To Measure Com on the Cob in Cribs 397 

Reckoning of Amount and Value of Hay in Mows or Stacks 397 

Strength of Hemp, Manila and Wire Ropes 399 

Legal Weights of Grain, Seeds, etc 400 

Commercial Grades of Grain .' 40 1 

Grades of Hay and Straw ,' 406a 

Specific Gravity of Various Substances 407 

Values of Foreign Coins 409 

Money Conversion Table 410 

IV. STATISTICAL TABLES. 

United States, Area and Population, 1900 411 

Canada, Area and Population, 1901 41 1 

Normal Mean Temperature of the Air in the United States 412 

Average and Actual Date of Last and First Killing Frost 413 

Normal Precipitation in the United States 415 

Meteorological Data for Canada 416 

Comparison of Leading Industries in the United States 416 

Areas of Appropriated, Vacant, and Reserved Lands in the United 

States 417 

Farming Population of the United States, 1 880-1 900 417 

Number and Classification of the Agricultural Population, 10 Years 

and Over 418 

Number of Farms in the United States, and their Value 418 

Statistics Concerning Farms in the United States 419 

Statistics of the Principal Crops in the United States in 1905 420 

Average Agricultural Wages in the United States in 1893-1895. . . 424 

Industry Groups in the United States 424 

Area, Production, and Value of Principal Crops in the United States, 

1905 42s 

The Principal Cereal Products of the United States, 1850-1900. .. 425 

Production of Various Crops in Canada, 1901 425 

Average Cost per Acre of Raising Wheat, Com, and Cotton in the 

United States, 1893 426 

Average Farm Price of Agricultural Products, 1890-1905 426 

Number and Value of Farm Animals in the United States, 1 870-1 900 427 

Values of Farm Property and Products in Canada. 1901 427 

Number of Farm Animals and Animal Products in Canada, 1901 . . 427 
Breeds and Number of Registered Live Stock in the United States, 

Dec. 31. 1905 428 

Pure-bred Cattle of Breeds Used for Dairying 429 

Number and Average Price of Farm Animals in the United States, 

January i , 1 906 430 

Dairy Statistics for the United States, 1900 432 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. XV 



PAOB 

Statistics of Butter, Cheese, and Condensed-milk Factories (Twelfth 

Census) 434 

Butter- and Cheese-making in Canada, 1901 435 

Wool Product of the United States, 1905 435 

Sugar Crop of the United States, 1905-1906 435 

Imports of Sugar into the United States, 1901-1905 436 

Statistics of Beet-sugar Factories in the United States for 1905 . . . 436 

Production of Cane- and Beet-sugar, 1 903-1 906 436 

Maple-sugar and Sirup, and Sorghum Sirup Produced in the 

United States, 1 899 437 

Statistics of the Lumber Industry of the United States, 1906.... 437 

Poultry and Egg Products in the United States, 1879-1899 438 

Production of Honey and Beeswax in the United States, According 

to Census Returns of 1 869-1 899 438 

Bees, Honey, and Wax in the United States 1899 438 

Imports and Exports of Agricioltural Products in the United States, 

1 904-1 905 439 

Domestic Exports of Butter and Cheese, 1 870-1 905 446 

Exports of Dairy Products from Canada, 1 870-1 904 446 

The Fertilizer Industry of the United States 447 

Imports and Exports of Fertilizers in 1896 447 

Imports of Fertilizers and Fertilizer Materials, 1896 447 

Rank of States as Regards Value of Agricultural Products 448 

V. DIRECTORY OF AGRICULTURAL INSTITUTIONS. 

Organization of the U. S. Department of Agriculture 452 

Ministers and Commissioners of Agriculture in Canada 453 

State Officials in Charge of Agriculture in the United States 453 

American Educational Institutions Having Courses in Agriculture . 454 

Statistics of Agricultural Schools and Colleges in the United States. 456 

List of American Veterinary Colleges 456 

Veterinary and Sanitary Officers in Charge of Live-stock Interests. 456 

Dairy Schools in the United States and Canada 457 

Schools of Forestry 457 

Agricultural Experiment Stations in the United States and Canada. 458 

Officials in Charge of Farmers' Institutes 459 

VI. AGRICULTURAL AND DAIRY LITERATURE. 

More Important Works on Dairying 460 

A List of Sixty Agricultural and Horticultural Books 462 

List of American and Foreign Dairy Papers 464 

The Main American Agricultural and Horticultural Papers 466 

Index 469 



COMPOSITION OF FEEDING STUFFS. 



Chart shotving Pounds of Water and of 
Digestible Matter in 100 lbs. 



Digestible 
Protein 



Digestible 
Carbohydrates 



Digestible 
Fat 



10 20 30 40 



Pasture grass 
Green clover 
Green corn 
Com silage 
Fodder Corn 
Coi'n stalks 
Timothy hay 
Red Clover hay 
Oat straw 
Potatoes 
Mangel wurzcls 
Carrots 
Indian Corn 
Wheat 
Barley 
Oats 
Rye 

Pea meal 
Corn d~ cob meal 
Corn cob 
Wheat bran 
Wheat middlings 
Rice br-an 
Linseed meal O.P. 
Linseed meal N.P. 
Cotton seed meal 
Cotton seed hulls 
Gluten meal 
Malt sprouts 
Brewers' grains 



-i^m 





40 50 00 70 



PART I. AGRICULTURE. 



I. FEEDING STUFFS. 
COMPOSITION OF FEEDING STUFFS. 

In the ordinary chemical analysis of feeding stuffs the 
following constituents are determined, viz., water, ash, pro- 
tein, crude fiber, nitrogen-free extract, ether extract (fat). 

Water is present in all feeding stuffs, from above 90 per 
cent in green foods and some kinds of roots, to below 10 per 
cent in very dry hay and in concentrated food stuffs. 

Ashy or mineral matter, is the non-combustible part of 
plants, and goes to make the bones of the animal, or to sup- 
ply material for the maintenance of other parts of the ani- 
mal body. 

Protein is the name of a large group of substances, all 
characterized by the fact that they contain the element ni- 
trogen; hence they are also called nitrogenous substances, 
and foods rich in protein are spoken of as nitrogenous foods. 
The protein substances supply the material necessary for the 
formation of lean meat, ligaments, tendons, hair, horns, 
hoofs, etc., and also of casein of the milk. Crude protein 
includes albuminoids and amides; among the former are 
found white of ^Z%, lean meat, curd of milk, and gluten; 
among the latter, asparagin and other crystallizable and 
water-soluble substances, generally speaking, of a somewhat 
inferior nutritive value. 

Crude Fiber or woody fiber is the framework of plants, 
forming the walls of their cells ; it is usually the least 
digestible portion of feeding stuffs, and the nutritive value 
of a plant is decreased as its crude fiber content increases. 

Nitrogen-free Extract includes starch, sugar, gums, or- 
ganic acids, etc., and forms a most important and usually a 
very large part of cattle foods. Together with cellulose, 
nitrogen-free extract forms the group of bodies called carbo' 

I 



2 AGRICULTURE. 

hydrates. A general name for carbohydrates is heat-produc" 
ing substances, as against flesh-forming substances, i.e., 
nitrogenous compounds, the names indicating the main 
cflSces of the substances in animal nutrition. 

Ether Extract, or cr tide fat {oil) includes a group of com- 
pounds dissolved out by ether in the analysis of foods; fat 
forms the main part of the extract; most feeding stuffs 
contain only a small quantity of fat, but this component 
is nevertheless of considerable importance in the feeding 
of animals. 

Organic Matter signifies the combustible portion of chemi- 
cally dry feeding stuffs, i.e. , all the components given in the 
preceding except water and ash. 

Digestible Components. — The food stuffs used in the feed- 
ing of farm animals are only partly of direct value to the 
animals, the portion which their digestive fluids are unable 
to dissolve being voided in the excrements. The digesti- 
bility of fodders has been determined by direct experiments 
with different kinds of farm animals, in this country or 
abroad. The digestion coefficients (see pp. 6-8) mean the 
percentages of any one component which have been found 
to be digested by the animals experimented on. 

Ntitritive Ratio signifies the ratio between the digestible 
nitrogenous and non-nitrogenous components in a feeding 
stuff' or a combination of such. As fat has been found to 
yield about 2.2 times more heat, when burned, than do starch, 
sugar, and other carbohydrates, the per cent of digestible 
fat in a food is multiplied by 2.2 when the nutritive ratio is 
to be calculated; the product is added to the per cent of 
digestible carbohydrates (nitrogen-free extract -|- crude 
fiber), and this sum is divided by the per cent of digestible 
protein. (The factor 2| or 2^ is sometimes used for obtain- 
ing "the starch equivalent" of fat.) 

Example : Clover hay contains on the average 6, 5 percent 
digestible protein, 34.9 per cent digestible carbohydrates, 
and 1.6 per cent digestible fat (see following table): 

1.6X2.2 = 3.52; 34.9 + 3.52 = 38.42; 38.42-1-6.5 = 5.9. 

Nutritive ratio, i i 5.9. 



FEEDIN"G STUFFS. 



AVERAGE COMPOSITION OP AMERICAN 
FKKDING STUFFS. 











1 


Per cent 






P 


eicentage Composition.* 


Digestible 




% 








Matter. 








_ 






^ 


^ 




*: 




>\ 












<-> 1 






« 


Feeding Stuffs. 











i3 


it 


t\ 







2 




< 








^ 

u 




rEx 

nic 
tter. 


11 








o 


u 




X) 


•a 




lu a: rt 


•o 


J3 rt 


V 




d 


rt 
^ 


"S" 


3 


3 


1^ 


■5 u S 


3 


x-S 


.a 




Z 


< 


u 


U 


t- 


W 6 


U 


U 


W 


Green Fodders and 






















Silage, 






















Pasture grass 




80.0 


2.0 


3-5 


4.0 


9-7 


.8 18.0 


2 6 


I0.6 


• 5 


Green fodder corn 














1 








(maize) 


126 


79-3 


1.2 


1.8 


5-0 


12.2 


•5 19-5 


1-3 


II. 8 


•4 


Alfalfa :lucern) 


23 


71.8 


2.7! 4-8| 7 4 


12.3 


1-025.5 


3-6 


11. 4 


•4 


Green clover. 


43 


70.8 


2.1 4-4, 8.1 


'3-5 


i.i 27 1 


2-9 


14. 1 


•7 


Alsike clover, in bloom 


4 


74.8 


2.0 3.9: 7 4 


II .0 


.9 23.2 


2.7 


'3.1 


.6 


Rye fodder 


7 


76.6 


1.8 2.6 II. 6 


6 8 


.0 21 .6 


2.1 


14.1 


•4 


Oat fodder 


5 


62.2 


2-5 3-4 ^i 2 


'9 3 


I 435.3 


2.7 


22.7 


I.O 


Sorghum fodder 


II 


79-4 


I.I 1.3 6 I 


II 6 


•5 19 5 


.8 


12.7 


•4 


Red top. in bloom .. 


5 


64.8 


2-3i 3-31 9-4 


19.1 


t 2 32 9 


23 


20.5 


•7 


Meadow fescue, in 






1 












bloom 


4 


69.9 


18 2.4'io 8 


H 3 


.828 3 


17 


17.8 


•5 


Timothy 


56 
81 


61 6 


2.1! 3 I 11.8 
2.8 4.1 9.1 


20 . 2 


1 -^ 36-3 
I 332 1 


2 .2 


23.0 
19.2 


:l 


Rlue-grass.. 


65.1 


T7 6 


2.9 


Prickly comfrey 


41 


88.4 


2 2; 2.4; 1.6 


51 


•3 9 4 


1.4 


4.6 


.2 


Corn silage .... 


Q9 


79.1 


1.4 1.7 6.0 




8 19.5 


.8 


II. 6 


•7 


Corn silage, Wis anal. 


17 


7.5 6 


2 I 


-7 78 


12. 9 


.9 24.2 


'■3 


14.0 


•7 


Clover silage 


5 


72.0 


2.6 


4.2 8.4 


11.6 


1.2 25.4 


2 


13. 5 


1.0 


Sorgliuni silage ... 


6 


76.1 


I.I 


.8 6.4 


•5 3 


.3 22.8 


.6 


14.9 


• 3 


Hay and Dry Coarse 
























Fodders. 
























Fodder corn (maize). 
























field cured 


35 

5 


42 2 


27' 4.514.3^4.7 


1.6 55. I 


2.6 


33.3 


I.I 


Same, Wis. analyses . . . 


29.0 


4.21 6.522.1 


36.5 


1.766.8 


3-7 


40.4 


1.2 


Corn stalks (stover), 






1 1 




1 








field cured 


60 


40.1 


3-41 3-8 19-7 


3^-9 


1. 156. 5 


2.0 


33-4 


.6 


Hay from red clover. 


38 


'5-3 


6.212.3 24.8 


38.1 


3 378.5 


6-5 


34-9 


1.6 


Hay from mammoth 






j 












clover .... 


10 


21.2 


6 i! 10.7 24.5 


3^-6 


3-972.7 


5-7 


32.0 


1.9 


Hay f'm alfalfa (lucern) 


21 


8.4 


7.4 \\.\ 25 c 


42 -7 


2.2 84.2 


10.3 


41.4 


I.I 


Hav from alsike clover. 


Q 




8.3 12 8 25.6 


40.7 


2.9 82.0 


6.8 


36.8 


1.4 


Oc-t hay 


6 


8.9 


6.2 


7.6 29.3 


45.' 


2.9 84.9 


4-3 


46.4 


1-5 


Timothy hay 


68 


13.2 


4.4 


5.929.0 


45 


2.582.4 


3 


43-9 


1.2 


Hay from mixed mea- 








1 




1 








dow grasses 


II 


16.0 


46 


6.4 29.9 


41.C 


2.1 79 4 


3-6 


42.7 


I.O 


H.iy from Hun. grass. 


12 


7.7 


6.0 


7-527.7 


49.0 


2.186.3 


4.5 


46.4 


1.0 


Flax hay . 


11 14.3 
2 10.3 


5-5 
7-3 


6.9 32.9 


.;0. 1 


3-1 

1 .6 


80.2 


7 2 
2.2 


36.6 

42.5 


1.8 


Crab-grass hay 


41.0 


82 4 


.6 


Marsh hay. 


2 


7.9 




7.8 30 1 


46.3 


2.7 


86.9 


3-5 


44-7 


1-7 


Oat straw 


12 


9.2 


5-1 


4.037.0 


42.4 


2.385-7 


1.6 


41.4 


-7 


Barley strawf 


97 


14.2 


5-7 


3 5 3D-0 


39 


1.580 I 


.9 


41-3 


.6 


Wheat straw 


7 
7 


,9.6 
7-' 


4.2 -> A ^^ 1 


43-4 
46.6 


I 386.2 
1.289.7 




37 9 
42.7 


•5 
.4 


Rye straw 


3-2 


3-038.9 


is 


Buckwheat straw 


3 


9.9 


S-5 


5-2 43.0 


35-' 


1.384.6 


2-3 


37-7 


.6 


Pea vinet 


14 


13.6 


6.6 9.0 35.5 

■ ' 1 


33-7 


1.6 79.8 

i 


4-3 


32.3 


.8 



* Largely from Jenkins and Winton's Compilation of Analyses 0/ 
American Feeding Stuffs. t KSnig. 



AGRICULTURE. 

AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF A3IERICAN 
FEEDING STUFFS.— Continued. 



Feeding Stuffs. 



Roots and Tubers. 

Potatoes 

Sweet potatoes 

Red beets 

Sugar beeis 

M.tngel-wurzels 

Rutabagas 

Turinps 

Carrots 

Artichoke 



Grains and Flour M ill 
Products. 

Corn (maize) 

Corn and cob meal. . . 

Corn cob 

Corn bran (hulls). .. .. 

Oats 

Oat shorts* 

Oat feed 

Oathulls 

Oat dust 

Barley 

Barley screenings.. .. 

Wheat 

Wheat bran— roller pro- 
cess. ... 

Wheat bran-oM pro- 
cess 

Wheat shorts 

Wheat middlings 

Wheat screenings.. . . 

Low-grade flour ("red 
dog") 

Rye 

Rye bran 

Rye shorts 

Huckwlieat 

Buckwheat bran 

Buckwheat shorts.. . . 

Buckwheat middlings.. 

Rice . 

Rice bran 

Rice hulls 

Rice polish 

Pea meal 



Percentage Composition. 



12 78 
671 

9 88 
1986 
9^90 
4i88 
3 90 
■ 88 
79 



9.1 
II .0 
10. o 
7-7 
7-3 
6.5 
10.9 
12.2 
10.5 

12.0 



to. 5 
8.5] 6.6 
2. 4 '30 
9.0 12 7 



1.9 
3-6 
5 9 
2.0 
3-0 
5-1 
5J 
•4 
10. o 
13' 
6.7 
2.6 



173 
24.7 
8.0 
9.8 
5-5 
7-5 
6.2 
7.6 
15-9 



O 



27.9 
10.5 
12.6 



»-7 
10.4 

19.5 



Per cent 

Digestible 

Matter. 



i.o 

S-o 
g 1 
12.6 
12.5 
'•3 

8.9 

9-5 
9-3 
9.2 

12.6 



6 
5 
5 9- 



c ■ 



16.] 

II. n 
7.6 
9-3 
4 
7- 
5-5 
7-^ 

i6.8 



64.8 



50 
43- 

59- 
44- 
45- 
46. 
40. 
:i8 

66. 
57- 
64 9 

44. 

47-5 

45- 

47.2 

51 

61.3 
65-5 
48.0 
45- 



7 


4 


21 


I 


22 





4 


8 


5 


3 




6 


9 





18 






.Konig, 



FEEDING STUFFS. 

AVERAGE C03IP0SITI0N OF AMERICAN 
FEEDING STUFFS — .Continued). 



Feeding Stuffs. 



Sorghum seed 

Broom com 

Flaxseed 

Cow pea 

Soja bean 

Miscellaneous Feeds. 

Malt sprouts 

Brewers' grains, wet . . 

Brewers' grains, dried. 

Hominy chops (meal). 

Gluten feed 

Cream gluten meal . . . 

Chicago gluten meal . . 

Com oil cake 

Germ meal(corn germ) 

Grano-gluten 

Starch feed, wet 

Cotton-seed meal .... 

Cotton-seed hulls .... 

Linseed meal, old pro- 
cess 

Linseed meal, new pro- 
cess 

Palm-nut meal * 

Sugar-beet leaves. . . . 

Prickly comfrey 

Rape 

Pumpkins 

Apples * 

Apple pomace 

Beet molasses 

Beet pulp 

Dried beet pulp 

Molasses beet pulp . . . 

Meat-scraps *...... 

Dried blood * 

Skimmed milk* 

Buttermilk * 

Whev * 



Percentage Composition. 



9.6 

75-7. 
7-7 

lO.Q 

8.3 

8.2 

9-5 

Q.O 

10.4 
5-7 

65.4 
8.2 
9.9 

9.2 



[O. 

[0.4 

88.0 

88.4 

284.S 

• . jgo-o 

36:84.8 



76.7 



20. 



4.4 

i\ 3.7 

44jio.7 
3! 8.5 
96190.4 
8590.1 
46'93-4 



2.1 

3-4, 
4-3 22.6 
3.2 20.8 
4-7 34-0 



5.4 
22.2 

9.9 
21.6 
32.8 
35.8 
24.8 
10. o 
3I.O 

6.1 
42.4 

4.2 

32.9 

33-2 

16.8 

2.6 

2.4 

2.3 

1-3 

•4 

1.4 

9.1 

•9 

8.3 

9.8 

71.2 

84.4 

3-3 

4.0 

• 9 



W 



O 



69.8 3-6 85..I 
63.6 3-o;85.i 
23-2t33. 7186.5 
55.7! 1.482.0 
28.816.9 84.=; 



3.7!64 
6.8|49 

1.7I42 
1.5146 
6.7143 
5.0 64 



II. 4 
3-1 
5.6 

47-4 



34-8 



35-4 



1.784.5 
1.6 23.^ 
6.388.7 
8.5'86.6 

[2.7 90. S 
[4.1 90.5 

5.689.6 
[3.588.6 

6.8'86.o 



9.5 38.5 
24.0,35.0 

2.2 4.4 

1.6 5.1 
2.61 8.4 
1.7! 5.2 
1.5 12.5 
3.9 16.2 

59.5: 

2.4 6.3 
19.0 63.5 
18.6 62.7 



4.71 
4.0I 
4.8 



14.2 

3.1 

12.9 



91.6 
34.3 
84.6 
87.2 

85.1 

o 84.1 
5 85.3 
4| 9.6 

3 9.4 
5113. 

4 8. 
3 14. 
3 22. 
.. 68. 
..| 9. 
791. 
7 91. 
7 85. 
586. 
8, 8. 
i| 9. 
3 5. 



Per cent 

Digestible 

Matter. 



c 
























a. 


X <u 


<u 


c tl 


'd 


x> ,^J 


P 


^-^ 


u 


6 


7.0 


52.1 


7.4 


48.3 


20.6 


17.1 


18.3 


54.2 


29.6 


17.9 


19.8 


36.2 


3.9 


9.5 


16.2 


3 5.- 


8.9 


61.0 


18.6 


48.3 


29. 5 


39. t" 


32.2 


44.1 


22.3 


42.6 


9.0 


t)1.2 


26.7 


38.8 


5-5 


21.7 


36.9 


18.I 


I.O 


2O.2 


28.3 


32.8 



27.2 

16.0 

1.7 

1.4 

1.5 
1.0 

.3 

1.0 

9.1 

.6 

5.8 

6.6 

68.4 

58.1 

3.1 

3.9 

.8 



52 


6 


4 


6 


4 


6 


8 


I 


5 


8 


12 


8 


" 


5 


59 


5 


7 


i 


67 


7 


67 


9 



3.1 

2.g 
29.0 



1.7 
1.3 
5-3 
7.8 

I I.I 

12.8 
5.1 

12.3 
6.2 

12.4 
2.3 

12.3 



2.7 
9.0 
.2 
.2 
.2 
.3 



.6 
.6 

3.5 



* Konig. 



AGRICULTURE. 



READY REFERENCE TABLE OF COMPOSITION OF 
FEEDS. (Hills.) 

The following tables save calculations of percentages, since, the weights 
and contents being given in pounds, it is only necessary to find the kind 
and desired amount of a certain feed, and the tables give the exact food 
contents in pounds; e.g., 15 lbs. of Green Fodder Corn contain 3.1 lbs. 
of dry matter, 0.17 lbs. of digestible protein, and 1.9 lbs. digestible car- 
bohydrates and fat. 



Pounds of 
Feed. 



Green 
Fodders. 

2* 

5 

10 

IS 

'20 

25 

30 

35 

40 

2i 

5 

10 

IS 

20 

2S 

30 

35 

40 

2i 

5 

10 

IS 

20 

25 

30 

35 

40 

5 

10 

15 

20 

25 

30 

35 

40 






^^ 






Pasture Grass 
I : 4.8 



0.5 


0.06 


0.3 


I .0 


0.12 


0.6 


2.0 


0.23 


I . I 


3.0 
4.0 
5.0 
6.0 


0.35 

0.46 

0.58 

. 69 


1-7 
2 . 2 
2.8 
3.3 


7.0 


0.81 


3-9 


8.0 


0.92 


4-4 



Green Fodder 
Com, I : 1 1.7 



0.5 
I .0 



0.03 
o .06 



o. 22 
0.28 
0.33 
0.39 
0.44 



0.3 
0.6 
I -3 
I .Q 
2.6 



Oats and Peas, 
I : 4.2 



8.5 



0.07 
0.14 
o . 27 
0.41 
0.54 
0.68 
0.81 
0.95 
1 .08 



Com Silage, 
i: 14.8 



0.7 
I -3 
2.6 
3-9 






03 





06 





12 





18 





24 





30 





36 





42 


° 


48 






Timothy Grass 
I : 14-3 



1 .0 
I .9 
3.8 
S.8 
7-7 
9.6 
ti-S 
[3.4 
[5-4 



o .04 
0.08 
0.15 
o. 23 
0.30 
0.38 
0.45 
0.53 

o . 60 



3-2 

4-3 
5-4 
6.4 
7-5 
8.6 



Green Oat 
der, I : i 



Fod- 

5.7 



0.9 
I .9 
3.8 
5-7 
7.6 
95 






06 





I 2 





24 





36 





48 





60 





72 





84 





96 



Barley and 
1 : 3-2 



3- I 
4.2 
5-2 
6.2 
7-3 
8.3 
Peas, 






07 





14 





28 





42 





56 





70 





84 





98 


I 


12 



Corn Stover Si- 
lage, I : 16.6 



0.5 
1 .0 
1.9 
2.9 
3-9 
4.8 
5.8 
6.8 
7-7 






02 





03 





06 





09 





I 2 





I S 





18 





21 





24 



0.3 

0.5 



>. • 




^ 


Q^ 


d 


p^.£ 






ots-d 


si 




XI Vh c 


y 


u^ci 


H 


Oh 





Ky. Blue Grass, 




I : 9.2 


0.9 


0.05 , o.s 


1.8 


. 10 


0.9 


3.5 


0. 20 


1.8 


5-2 


0.30 


2.7 


7.0 


0.40 


3.7 


8.7 


0.50 


4-7 


10.5 


0. 60 


5-5 


12.2 


0. 70 


6.4 


14.0 


0.80 


7.3 


Green Rve Fod- 


der, I : 7.2 


0.6 


.05 


0.4 


I . 2 


0. II 


0.7 


2.3 


0.21 


I -5 


3-5 


0.32 


2.3 


4-7 


0.42 


3-0 


5.9 


0.52 


3.8 


7.0 


0.63 


4-5 


8.2 


0.74 


5-3 


9.4 


0.84 


6.0 


Red Clover 


(crrP 


en) I : 


5-7 



0.7 


.07 


0.4 


I -5 


CIS 


0.8 


2.9 


. 29 


I .6 


4-4 


0.44 


2.5 


5-9 


0.58 


3.3 


7-3 


0.73 


41 


8.8 


0.87 


4.9 


10 . 2 


I .02 


5.7 


II .7 


I. 16 


6.6 


Clover Silage, 


I : 4-7 


f'.7 


0.07 


0.3 


I .4 


0. 14 


0.6 


2.8 


0.27 


I -3 


4.2 


0.41 


1.9 


5.6 


0.54 


2.6 


7 -o 


0.68 


3- 2 


8.4 


0.81 


3-9 


9.8 


0.95 


4-5 


1 1 . 2 


1.08 


5- 1 



FEEDING STUFFS. 



COMPOSITION OF FEEDS—iContinued). 



Pounds of 
Feed. 



r 



Oh IU 



Potatoes, 



0.5 
2. 1 

3-2 

4.2 

5-3 

'>-\ 
7-4 
8.4 






02 





05 





09 







14 
18 





23 





27 






32 

36 



Mangel Wurtzels. 
r : 4.9 






03 





06 





II 





17 





22 





28 





33 





39 





44 



0.3 
0.5 

0.8 

1.4 

1.6 
I -9 
2. 2 



Skim Milk, 



0.5 
0.9 
1 .4 
1 .9 
2.4 






07 





15 





29 





44 





58 





73 





87 


T 


02 


I 


16 



Mixed Hay, 
I : 10. o 






II 





22 





33 





44 







55 
66 






77 
88 


r 


10 






r 



I rr, ^ 

a! 
O 



Sugar Beets, i : 6.8 






04 





08 





16 





24 





32 





40 





48 





56 





64 



0.3 
0.5 

I . I 
1-7 
2 . 2 
2.7 
3-3 
3.8 
4.4 



Rutabagas, 
I : 8.6 



0.3 


0.03 


0.5 


0.05 


I . I 


. 10 


1.6 


0.15 


2.3 


0. 20 


2.9 


0.25 


3-4 


0.30 


4.0 


0-35 


4.6 


.40 



. 2 
0.4 
0.9 

1-3 

1 -7 

2 . 2 



Buttermilk, 1:1.7 



1 -5 

2 .0 
2.5 
3-0 
3-5 
4.0 



. 10 
0.19 
0.38 
0.57 

. 76 

0.95 

1 . 14 

1 -33 

1-52 



0.3 
0.6 
I .0 
I -3 
1.6 

1 -9 

2 . 2 
2.6 



Timothy Hay, 
I : 16.5 



.6 






O ni^ 



6 



Carrots, i : 9.6 



0.03 
o .05 
o. 10 
o.is 
o. 20 

0.25 
0.30 
0.35 

0.40 



O. 2 

o-S 
1 .0 

1.4 
1.9 
2.4 
2.9 

3-4 
3.8 



Turnips, i : 7.7 



0.5 
1 .0 
1.4 
1.9 
2.4 
2.9 
3-3 
3.8 






05 





05 





10 





1-5 





20 





25 





30 





35 





40 



Whey, I : 8.7 



0.3 
0.6 
0.9 
1 . 2 
I -5 

1 -9 

2 . 2 
2.5 






02 






03 
06 





09 





12 






15 

18 





21 





24 



0.3 

o.S 
0.8 
1 .0 
1-3 
1.6 
1.8 
2. I 



Ky. Blue Grass 
Hay, I : 10.6 



1.9 

3-7 
5.6 
7-4 
9.2 
[I.I 
[3.0 
r4.8 
[8.5 



I .0 
2.0 
3.0 
3-9 
4.9 
5-9 
6.9 
7-9 
9.9 



AGRICULTURE. 



COMPOSITION OF FEEDS — {Continued). 



Pounds of 
Feed. 



Havs. 



2h 
lO 

Ik 

20 

25 



2i 

U 
lO . 

\u 

20 
25 



Dry 

Fodders. 



2^ 

u 

lO 
I2i 

15 

20 
25 



Grains. 






CJ 



Oat Hay, I : g.g 



2 


.3 


o 


lO 


J 





4 


6 


o 


21 


2 





6 


8 


o 


31 


3 





9 


I 


o 


41 


4 





II 


4 


o 


51 


5 


I 


13 


7 


o 


62 


6 


I 


16 


o 


o 


72 


7 


I 


i8 


2 


o 


82 


8 


I 


22 


8 


I 


03 


10 


2 



Red Clover Hay, 
1 : 5-9 



4.2 

6.4 

8.5 

10. 6 

12.7 

14.8 
16.9 
21.2 






.18 





.36 





• 53 





• 71 





.89 


I 


.07 


I 


• 24 


I 


.42 


I 


.78 



2. 1 

3-2 

4.2 

5-2 

6.3 

7-3 
8.3 
:o.5 



Com Fodder, 
I : 14-3 



1.6 
4-5 






06 





13 





19 





25 





32 





38 





44 





50 





63 



Com Meal, 



o .02 
0.03 
0.06 
0.13 
0.19 
0.25 
0.32 
0.48 
0.63 



t>, . 




_^ 


as 


d 


^^^i 


11 




oj'O 




^ V- C 












f-^ 


Oh 


1 


Oat and Pea Hay,* 


1:4-1 1 


2 . 2 


0.28 


I . 2 


4-4 


0.56 


2.3 


6.6 


0.84 


3-5 


8.9 


I. .12 


4.6 


II . I 


1.40 


5.8 


13.3 


1.68 


6.9 


15-5 


1 . 96 


8.1 


17.7 


2.24 


9.2 


22 . I 


2.80 


II. 6 


Alsike Clover Hay, 


I : 5-5 


2.3 


. 21 


1 . 2 


4-5 


0.42 


2.3 


6.8 


0.63 


3.5 


9.0 


0.84 


4.6 


II. 3 


1.05 


5.8 


13-5 


1.26 


6.9 


15.8 


1-47 


8.1 


18. I 


1.68 


9.2 


22.6 


2 . 10 


II. 6 


Corn Stover, 


I : 23.6 


1-5 


0.04 


0.8 


3-0 


.07 


1-7 


4-5 


. 1 1 


2.5 


6.0 


0.14 


3-3 


7-5 


0.18 


4. I 


9.0 


0.21 


5-0 


10. 5 


0. 2=; 


5.8 


12.0 


0. 28 


6.6 


15 -o 


0.3S 


8.3 


Com and Cob 


Meal, I : 13.9 


0. 2 


O.OI 


0. 2 


0.4 


.02 


0.3 


0.9 


0.05 


0. 7 


1 1-7 


0. 10 


I .3 


2.6 


0.14 


2.0 


3-4 


0.19 


2.7 


4-3 


0.24 


3.4 


6.4 


0.36 


5.1 


8.5 


0.48 


6.7. 



r 



o 



Hungarian, i : 10.0 






12 





a.S 





37 





49 





62 





74 





86 





98 


' 


23 



<Jut Straw, 
I : 38.3 



2.3 
4.6 
6.8 
9.1 



c 



03 
06 





09 





12 






15 
18 





21 





24 





30 1 

1 



Wheat Straw, 
I : 93.0 



2.3 


O.OI 


0.9 


4-5 


.02 


I 


9 


6.8 


0.03 


2 


8 


9.0 


0.04 


3 


7 


II .3 


0.05 


4 


6 


13-5 


0.06 


5 


6 


15.8 


0.07 


6 


5 


18. I 


0.08 


7 


4 


22.6 


0. 10 


' 


3 



Oats, 






02 





05 





09 





18 





28 





3 7 





46 





69 





92 



FEEDING STUFFS. 



COMPOSITION OF FEEDS~(Continued). 









^21 



Barley, i : 8.0 






02 





04 





09 





17 





26 





35 





44 





65 





«7 



Wheat Middlings, 
I : 4.6 






03 





06 





13 





as 





3« 





50 





63 





94 


I 


25 



O. I 

0.3 
0.6 

I . 2 

1-7 

2.3 
2.9 
4.4 

5.8 



Rye, I : 7- 



o. 2 
0.4 
0.9 
1.8 
2.7 
3-5 
4.4 
6.6 
8.8 






02 





04 





09 





18 





27 





36 





46 





67 





89 



Cottonseed Hulls, 



o . 2 
0.4 
0.9 
1.8 
2.7 
3.6 
4-5 
6.7 
8.9 



0.7 
I . I 
1-5 



2.7 
3-7 



O^ 

H 



Barley Screenings, 
I : 7-7 



o .02 
o .04 
o .09 

0.17 

o . 26 

0.34 
0.43 
0.65 

0.86 



0.3 
0.7 

1-3 

2.0 
2.7 
3-3 

5-0 
6.6 



Wheat Screen- 
ings, 1 : 5.2 






02 





05 





10 





20 





29 





39 





49 





74 





98 



. 2 
0.5 

1 .0 
1 .5 
2.0 
2.5 
3.8 
5.1 



Rye Bran, 



0.9 
1.8 
2.7 
3-5 
4.4 
6.6 






o^ 





06 





1 2 





25 





37 






49 
62 





92 


I 


23 



Linseed Meal, o. p, 
I : 1.5 



o.S 
0.9 
1.8 
2.7 
3.6 
4.9 
6.8 
9.0 



0.08 
0.15 
0.31 
o . 62 

. 92 

1 -23 
I -54 
2.31 
3-o8 



3-4 
4.6 









Wheat Bran, 



0.4 
0.9 
1.8 
2.6 
3-5 
4.4 
6.6 






OS 





06 





12 





24 





36 





48 





60 





90 


' 


20 



O . I 

. 2 
0.5 

1 .0 
1.4 

1.8 
2.3 
3-4 
4.6 



Red-dog Flour, 
I ■- 3-3 



0.5 
0.9 
1.8 
2.7 
3.6 
4.6 
6.8 
9.1 






04 





09 





18 





36 





53 





71 





89 


I 


34 


I 


78 



. I 

0.3 
0.6 

1 . 2 

I -7 

2.3 
2.9 
4.4 

5.8 



Cottonseed Meal, 
I : i.o 






10 





20 






40 
80 


I 
I 


20 
60 


2 


00 


3 


00 


4 


00 



Linseed Meal, n. p. 



o . 2 

0.4 



10 



AG41ICULTUKE. 



COMPOSITION OF FEEDS — {Continued). 



Pounds of 
Feed. 



By- 
products. 



I 

I 

2 

3 
4 
5 



h 

I 

2 

3 
4 

u 









bSfe 



Flax Meal, 



O. 2 


o.oS 


0.4 


o. i6 


o.O 


0.32 


1.8 


. 64 


2.7 


. 96 


3.6 


1.28 


4..S 


1.60 


6.7 


2.40 


8.9 


3.21 



Gluten Feed, 
BufiFalo, I : 2. 



o. 2 
0.4 
0.9 
i.S 
2.7 
3.6 
4-5 
6.8 
9.0 






06 





I 2 





2.^ 





47 





70 





3 


I 


'17 


I 


7 5 


2 


3S 



Atlas Gluten 
Meal, I : 2.6 



0.5 
0.9 
1.8 



.06 
0.12 
0.25 
0.49 
0.74 
0.98 

1 - 2.S 
1.85 



0.3 
0.6 



I -3 
I .9 
2.6 
3- 2 
4.9 
6.5 



Q^ 



Gluten MeaKChi.), 
I : I.S 






08 





16 





32 





64 





96 




28 


I 


60 


2 


40 


3 


21 



O. I 

. 2 
0.5 
0.9 

1 .4 
I .9 
2.3 
3.5 
4.7 



Hominy Chop, 
I : 9-2 



o . 2 
0.5 
0.9 
1.8 
2.8 
3.7 
4.6 
6.9 
9.2 






02 





04 





09 





17 





26 





35 





44 





6S 





«7 



Malt Sprouts, 
I : 2.2 



0.4 
0.9 
1.8 
2.7 
3.6 
4.5 
6.7 
9.0 






05 





09 





19 





3 7 





56 





74 





3 


I 


40 


I 


8f) 









Gluten Meal, 
Cream, i : 1.7 



o . 2 
0.4 
0.9 
1.8 
2.7 
3.6 
4-5 
6.7 
9.0 






07 





15 





30 





50 





«9 


I 


19 


I 


49 


2 


.23 


2 


.97 



Dried Brewers' 
Grains, i : 3.0 



o. 2 
0.5 
0.9 
1.8 







.04 
08 





16 





31 






47 
63 




I 


79 
18 


' 


.57 



O. I 

0.3 
0.5 
0.9 

I -4 
1.9 
2.4 
3.5 
4.7 



Pea Meal 1:3-2 



2 


0.04 


4 


0.08 





0.17 


8 


0.33 


7 


0.50 


6 


. 67 


5 


0.84 


7 


I .26 





1.68 



O . I 

0.3 
0.5 

I . I 
1.6 
2. 1 
2.7 
4.0 
53 



FEEDING STUFFS. 11 

CLASSIFICATION OF CATTLE FOODS. (Lindsey.) 

A. Coarse Feeds {Roughage). 

I. Low in protein, high in carbohydrates: 

(a) 50-65 per cent, digestible: Hays, straws, corn 

fodder, corn stover, and silage. 
(h) 85-95 per cent, digestible: Carrots, potatoes, 

sugar beets, mangels, turnips. 

II. Medium in protein and in carbohydrates, 55-65 per 

cent, digestible: Clovers, vetches, pea and bean 
fodders and brans. 

B. Concentrated Feeds {Concentrates). 

III. Low in protein, high in carbohydrates, 80-go per 

cent, digestible: Wheat, rye, barley, oats, Indian 
corn. 

IV. High in protein, medium in carbohydrates, 80-go per 

cent, digestible: Bean and pea meals, gluten feeds 
and meals, linseed meals, cottonseed meal. 

CLASSIFICATION OF CONCENTRATES, ACCORDING 
TO PROTEIN CONTENT: 

(a) Very rich in protein (about 80 per cent..) : Dried blocd, 
meat scraps, cottonseed meal. 

(b) Rich in protein (25-40 per cent.) : Gluten meal, Atlas meal, 
linseed meal, buckwheat middlings, soja beans, grano-gluten. 

(c) Fairly rich in protein (12-25 P^r cent.) Malt sprouts, 
dried brewers' grains, gluten feed, cow pea, pea meal, wheat 
shorts, rye shorts, oat shorts, wheat middlings, wheat bran, 
low-grade flour (red-dog). 

{d) Low in protein (below 12 per cent.): Wheat, barley, oats, 
rye, corn, rice polish, rice, hominy chops, germ meal. 



12 



AGRICULTURE. 



FEEDING STANDARDS FOR FARM ANIMALS, 

(Wolff- Lehm ANN.) 
(Per day and per looo lbs. live weight.) 



1. Steers at rest in stall 

Steers slightly worked 

Steers moderately worked. 
Steers lieavily worked. ... 

2. Fattening steers, ist period 

2d " , 
" 3d " . 



3. Milch cows, daily milk yield, 11 lbs, 



27.6 



4. Wool sheep, coarser breeds. 
" " finer breeds 



5. Breeding ewes, with lambs. 

6. Fattening sheep, ist period. 



7. Horses lightly worked 

Horses moderately worked. 
Horses heavily worked 



8. Brood sows, with pigs. 



9. Fattening swine, ist period. 

2d " c 

" 3d " . 

ID. Growing cattle: 

Dairy Breeds, 



Aver. live weight 

Age, Months. per head. 

2-3 154 Ihs 

3-6 309 " 

6-12 507 " 

12-18 705 " ....... 

18-24 882 " . 






lbs. 

18 



Nutritive 
(Digestible) 
Substances. 



lbs. 



14-5 
15.0 



15.0 
14-5 



25 .0 
24 



aw 

lbs. 



.0 


13- 


.0 


t2. 


.0 


12. 


.8 


I2. 


•5 


12. 



•-:.Q 






0.5 1 



lbs. 



14.7 
17.7 



t2.3 

14.0 

.6.7 

18.2 



12.2 
14.2 



19.2 
19.4 



145 
17.7 



15-7 
15-3 
14.2 



FEEDING STUFFS. 



13 



FEEDING STANDARDS FOR FARM ANIMALS. 

{Concluded.) 



11. Growing cattle: 

Beef Breeds. 

Aver, live weight 

Age, Months. per head. 

2-3 165 lbs.. . 

3-6 3JI ■' • • • 

6-12 551 "'... 

12-18 750 " ... 

18-24 937 "••• 

12. Growing sheep: 

// 'ool Breeds. 

4-6 62 lbs. . . 

6-8 75 "... 

8-11 84 "... 

11--15 90 " ... 

15-20 99 "... 

13. Growing sheep: 

Mutton Breeds. 

4-6 66 lbs. . . 

6-8 84 " .... 

8-11 lOI " 

11-15 121 " ... 

15-20 154 " ... 

14. Growing swine: 

Breeding A nimals. 

2-3 44 lbs. . 

3-5 99 "••• 

5-6 121 "... 

6-8 176 "... 

8-12 265 " ... 

15. Growing fat pigs: 

2-3 44 lbs..., 

3-5 no " .... 

5-6 143 " .... 

• 6-8 198 " ..., 

8-12 287 ".... 









lbs. 



Nutritive 
(Digestible) 
Substances. 



lbs. 



lbs. 



13.0 
12 8 



15.5 
15.0 
14.3 
12.6 
12.0 



28.0 

23.1 

■3 

.7 

•3 



28.0 
3.1 
2.3 
0-5 

8.3 



lbs. 



5^ 



lbs. 



20.0 
19.9 
17.4 

»5-7 
14.8 



14. s 
[4.0 
[3.0 



15.5 
16.0 
15 o 



38.0 

30.0 
26.0 



38.0 

30.0 



1:4.2 
1:4.7 
1:6.0 
1:6.8 
1:7.2 



rs-o 

::5-4 
::6.o 
::7.o 
•■11 



:4.o 
:4.8 
:5.2 
::6.3 
:6.5 



1:4.0 
1:5.0 
1:6.0 
1:7.0 
::7.S 



1:4.0 
1:5-0 
1:5.5 
1:6.0 
1:6.4 



14 



AGRICULTURE. 
RATIONS FOR DAIRY COWS. 



Woods & Phelps 

Woll 

Wolff 'sGerman Stand'. 
Wolff-Lehmann 



Org'nic 
Matter. 



lbs. 
25.0 
24-5 
24.0 



Digestible. 



Protein 



lbs. 

2-5 

2.2 
2.5 



Carbo- 
hydrates 



lbs. 
12.5 
13-3 

12-5 



Fat. 



lbs. 

.65 

•7 

•4 



(See page 12) 



Total. 



lbs. 
15-65 
16.2 
154 



Nut. 
Ratio- 



1:5.6 
1:6.9 
i:S-4 



CAIiCULiATION OF COMPONENTS OF FEED 
RATIONS. 

Let us suppose that we have at our disposal the following 
common feeding stuffs : Fodder corn, clover hay, and wheat 
bran, and that we want to know how much is required to keep a 
milch cow of 1000 lbs. live weight in good condition and to 
secure a maximum yield of milk. We will feed 15 lbs. of 
corn fodder, 5 lbs. of clover hay, and 10 lbs. of wheat bran. 
According to the table these quantities contain the following 
number of pounds of digestible matter : 





Dry 

Matter. 


Digestible. 




Protein. 


Carbohy- 
drates and 
Fat. 


15 lbs of corn t odder 


Lbs. 
8.7 
4.2 
8.8 


Lbs. 
.38 
.36 

1 . 20 


Lbs. 
5 4 








4.6 




Total 


21.7 


1.94 









This ration falls somewhat short of the feeding standard in 
both total dry matter and digestible substances. To bring it 
nearer to the standard, we add a couple of pounds of some con- 
centrated feed. In selecting the feeds and deciding the quan- 
tities to be given in each case, the market prices of the feeds 
must be considered. We will suppose that a supply of corn meal 
is available in this case, and will add two pounds of this feed to 
the above ration. 



FEEDIKG STUFFS. 



15 





Dry 
Matter. 


Digestible. 






Crude 
Protein. 


Carbohy- 
drates. 


Nutritive 
Ratio. 


Ration as above 

2 lbs. of com meal 


Lbs. 

21 .7 

1-7 


Lbs. 

1.94 

• 13 


Lbs. 

12. 1 

1 .4 




Total 


2;, .4 

24-5 
24.0 


2.07 
2.2 

2.5 


13-5 

13.3 
12.5 




Proposed American feeding 
ration for. milch cows. . . 

Wolff's feeding standard for 
milch cows . . 


1 : 6.9 

1-54 







The ration now corresponds fairly well with the proposed 
American feeding ration; there is a small deficit of dry matter 
and of digestible protein; but there is no ncessity of trying to 
follow any standard ration blindly, as they are only intended 
to be approximate gauges which the farmer may use in estimat- 
ing the quantities of nutrients required by farm animals in order 
to do their best, cost and product both being considered. 
Cows, like all farm animals, vary greatly in their productive 
capacity, as well as in their food requirements, and their capacity 
to make economical use of their feed; hence feeding standards 
can only be applied to average conditions, a point which should 
always be kept in mind in using them. 

In constructing rations according to the above feeding 
standards, several points must be considered besides the chemi- 
cal composition and the digestibility of the feeding stuffs; the 
standards cannot be followed directly without regard to bulk 
and other properties of the fodder; the ration must not be too 
bulky, and still must contain a sufficient quantity of rough- 
age to keep up the rumination of the animals, in case of cow 
and sheep, and to secure a healthy condition of the animal:) 
generally. The local market prices of cattle foods are of the 
greatest importance in determining which feeds to buy; the 
conditions in the different sections of our continent differ so 
greatly in this respect that no generalizations can be made. 
Generally speaking, nitrogenous concentrated feeds are the 
cheapest feeds in the South and the East, and flour-mill, brewery, 
and starch-factory-refuse feeds the cheapest in the Northwest 



16 AGRICULTURE. 

PRACTICAL RATIONS FOR DAIRY COWS. 

Fed by 16 American Dairymen Producing 325 lbs. of 
Butter or more per Cow per Year.* 

1. Colorado. — 30 lbs. silage, 10 lbs. alfalfa hay, 10 lbs. clover 
hay, 5 lbs. wheal bran, 2 lbs. corn meal. 

2. Connecticut. — 35 lbs. corn silage, 10 lbs. hay, 3 lbs. wheat 
bran, 3 lbs. corn and cob meal, 2 lbs. cotton-seed meal, 2 lbs 
Chicago gluten meal, 

3. Illinois. — -}\ lbs. clover hay, l\ lbs. timothy hay, 12 jbs. 
corn and cob-meal, 8 lbs. bran, i:^ lbs. linseed meal, i^ lbs. 
cotton-seed meal. 

4. New Jersey. — 24 lbs. corn silage, 8 lbs. corn meal, 2 lbs. 
wheat bran, 4 lbs. oats, 2 lbs. oil meal. 

5. Neiv York. — 20 lbs. hay, 2 lbs. wheat bran, 2 lbs. cotton- 
seed meal, 2 lbs. hominy meal. 

6. New York. — 12 lbs. timothy hay, i lb. wheat bran, i lb. 
middlings, 2 lbs. corn meal, 2 lbs. cotton-seed meal, 40 lbs. 
skim-milk. 

7. Nezv York. — 42 lbs. corn silage, 2\ lbs. clover hay, i\ lbs. 
timothy hay, 8 lbs. corn and cob meal, 14 lbs. dried brewers*' 
grains. 

8. North Carolina. — 30 lbs. corn silage, 8 lbs. fodder corn, 
3 lbs. corn meal, 3 lbs. wheat bran, i lb. cotton-seed meal. 

9. Pennsylvania. — 24 lbs. corn fodder, 5.1 lb. wheat bran, 
5.1 lbs. corn meal, 3 lbs. cotton-seed meal, 2 lbs. oil meal. 

10. Pennsylvania. — 10 lbs. corn fodder, 6 lbs. hay, 3^ lbs. 
wheat bran, i^ lbs. cotton-seed meal, i^ lbs. oil meal, 2\ lbs. 
corn meal. 

11. Texas.— 0^0 lbs. corn silage, 13^ lbs. sorghum hay, 1.3 lbs. 
corn meal, 2.6 lbs. cotton-seed meal, 2.2 lbs. cotton-seed, 1.3 lbs. 
wheat bran. 

12. Vermont.— -^o lbs. corn silage, 10 lbs. hay, 4.2 lbs. corn 
meal, 4.2 lbs. wheat bran, .8 lb. linseed meal. 

13. West Virginia. — 48 lbs. corn silage, 2^ lbs. corn and cob 
meal, 2\ lbs. ground wheat, 2\ lbs. oats, 2^ lbs. barley meal. 



* See Woll, "One Hundred American Rations for Dairy Cows," Bul- 
letin No. 38, Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment Station. 



FEEDING STUFFS. 



17 



14. Wisconsin. — 26 lbs. corn silage, 10 lbs. clover hay, 5 lbs. 
timothy hay, 8 lbs. wheat middlings, i^ lbs. oil meal. 

15. IVisconsin.—so lbs. corn silage, 5 lbs. sheaf oats, 5 lbs. 
corn fodder, i lb. clover hay, i lb. millet, 2.7 lbs. cotton-seed 
meal, 1.3 lbs. oil meal, 6 lbs. wheat bran. 

16. Canada.— ^o lbs. corn silage, il lbs. clover hay, 3 lbs. 
straw. li lbs. oats, ij lbs. barley, i^ lbs. pea meal, 3 lbs. wheat 
bran, I lb. cotton-seed meal. 

The preceding rations contain approxiinately the following 
amounts of nutrients, calculated for 1000 lbs. live weight : 





Organic 
Matter. 


Digestible. 


Nutritive 
Ratio. 


No. 




Carbo- 
hydrates. 










Protein. 


Fat. 


Total. 






lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


X 


31.09 


2.70 


15.78 


.80 


19.28 


1:6.5 


2 


25.70 


2.69 


13.96 


•97 


17.62 


I : 6.0 


3 


22.09 


2.37 


12.06 


.75 


15.18 


I : 5-8 


4 


19.41 


2.06 


11.71 


.87 


14.64 


I : 6.5 


5 


26.19 


2.36 


13-78 


-79 


16,93 


I : 6.6 


6 


25-73 


3-50 


14.05 


1. 12 


18.67 


I : 4-7 


7 


31-30 


3-37 


16.31 


I-3I 


20.99 


I : 5-7 


8 


20.38 


1.79 


11.98 


.80 


14.57 


I : 7-7 


9 


26.52 


2-53 


15-74 


.90 


19.17 


I : 7.0 


10 


20.05 


2.31 


n.oo 


.72 


14-03 


I ■■ 5-4 


11 


26.58 


2.21 


12.31 


1.30 


15-82 


1:6.9 


12 


24.23 


1.86 


14.03 


•75 


16.64 


t : 8.4 


»3 


22.37 


1-54 


14-15 


.72 


16.41 


I :io.2 


H 


31-00 


301 


16.02 


.87 


19.90 


1 : 6.0 


15 


23-79 


2-73 


12.46 


.99 


16.18 


I : 5 4 


16 


22.96 


2.08 


12.17 


•71 


14.96 


I : 6.6 



18 



AGKICULTURE. 



AVERAGE WEIGHTS OF CONCENTRATED FEEDING 
STUFFS. 



Feeding Stuff. 



One Quart 


One Pound 


Weighs. 


Measures. 


Pounds. 


Quarts. 


I . I 


.9 


1-5 


• 7 


.55 


1.8 


.6 


1.7 


1.4 


.7 


• 7 


1.4 


.5 


2.0 


1.5 


.7 


1-7 


.6 


1-5 


•7 


I .o 


I .o 


• 5-. 7 


i.o-i .4 


1.4 


.7 


1-3 


.8 


1-7 


.6 


I . I 


• 9 


1.6 


.6 


.9 


1 . 1 


I . I 


■9 


.6 


1-7 


.6 


1.7 


• 75 


1-3 


.8 


1.3 


1-5 


• 7 


I .o 


1 .o 


.6 


1.7 


1-3 


.8 


1-5 


• 7 


1.7 


.6 


•5 


2.0 


.6 


1.7 


1-7 


.6 


I . 2 


.8 


.8 


1.3 


I .0 


.5 



Barley meal 

Barley, whole 

Beet pulp, dried 

Brewers' grains, dried 

Com and cob meal 

Com and oat feed 

Com bran 

Corn meal 

Com, whole 

Cottonseed meal 

Cottonseed 

Distillers' grains, dried 

Germ-oil meal 

Gluten feed 

Gluten meal 

Hominy meal 

Kafir meal 

Linseed meal, new process 

" " old process 

Malt sprouts 

Mixed feed (bran and middlings) 

Molasses beet pulp 

Oat feed 

Oat middlings 

Oats, whole 

Rye bran 

Rye feed (rye bran and rye middlings) 

Rye meal 

Rye, whole 

Wheat bran 

Wheat feed, mixed 

Wheat, ground 

Wheat middlings (" flour") 

" " (' standard") 

Wheat, whole 



FOOD REQUIREMENTS OF FARM ANIMALS. 

It is generally assumed in comparing the food require- 
ments of the different classes of farm animals that one cow 
at pasture will eat about seven-tenths as much daily 
as a full-grown horse, or as much as two yearling colts, 
heifers, or young bulls, or as three to five calves, or four 
colts taken from the mare, or ten to twelve sheep, or as 
twelve to twenty three-months-old lambs, or as four to five 
swine. It may be figured that the quantity of pasture grass 
eaten by a cow per day, which of course will vary with the 
season and the condition of the pasture, will equal 25-30 lbs 
of good meadow hay or 40 lbs. hay of inferior quality. 



FEEDING STUFFS. 



19 



COMPARATIVE VALUE OF CATTLE FOODS. 

Comparing concentrated foods with coarse feeds, one 
pound of the former may be considered a food unit; the 
quantity of grass eaten by one cow at pasture during one 
day is assumed equivalent to 12 to 13 food units during 
the early part of the summer, and to 4 food unit? in the 
late fall, 10 units being considered an average figure. 

The following quantities of different feeding stuffs are 
considered approximately equivalent, as determined by 
European, largely Danish, feeding experience (Schroll): 

I lb. concentrated feed (cereals, mill-refuse feeds,' oil 
meals, etc.) = 2^ to 3 lbs. of good meadow hay = 4 lbs. of 
poorer quality hay = 10 lbs. rutabagas = 12.2 lbs, turnips 
= 4 lbs. potatoes = 10 lbs. green fodder = 6 lbs. buttermilk 
= 6 lbs. skim-milk = 12 lbs. whey = i lb. new milk. 



CALCULATED VALUE OF FRUITS COMPARED WITH 
HAY, GRAINS, ETC. (Jaffa and Anderson.) 



100 lbs. of each of 






















the fruits named 


^ 




















below is equiva- 


t 


<A 










f 


•d 


f3 


•lJ 


lent to the 


(/} 


ffi 


>. 








cq 


^ rn 


nj 


% 


amounts of the 




oj 


£ 






_^ 




^ M 


m 




materials given 


t 






u5 


nj 










in the columns to 






+-^ 


+-> 


^ 


43 


.d'O 


.y 


the right. 


i^ 


< 








^ 


^ 


t^ 


^ 


Fresh Fruits. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Apples 


34 


20 


24 


15 


17 


16 


18 


16 


13 


9 


Oranges 


40 
50 


19 


23 


14 


16 


15 


17 


15 


1 2 


8 


Pears 










20 




15 


1 1 


Plums 


30 


36 


22 


25 


24 


26 


24 


20 


14 


Prunes . ... 


46 
40 
43 


27 
23 
26 


33 


20 


23 


22 


24 


22 


t8 


13 










20 




15 


1 1 


Nectarines 


30 


10 


22 


21 


23 


21 


17 


12 


Figs 










?6 


25 


27 


25 


20 


14 




50 
22 


30 
13 


37 
16 




26 




27 




20 


14 


Watermelons 


10 


II 


II 


12 


1 1 


8 


6 


Nutmeg melons. . . 


19 


II 


13 


8 


9 


9 


10 


9 


7 


5 


Dried Fruits. 






















Prunes 


175 


104 


125 


7« 


88 


84 


92 


84 


67 


48 


Apricots 


194 

190 


IIS 


138 


86 


97 


93 


102 


93 


74 


53 


Peaches 


113 


135 


8^ 


95 


91 


100 


91 


72 


51 


Figs 


186 


no 


132 


8^ 


9? 


80 


97 


80 


71 


50 


Raisins 


2l6 


128 


153 


97 


loS 


103 


1 1 1 


103 


82 


59 







20 



AGRICULTURE. 



PRICES OF CEREALS PER BUSHEL AND PER 
TON. 



Name. 











Name. 


4-. iJ 
1^ acQ 



1 


it 


<U I- 




[X. 


IX, 


£ ^ 




^ 


fcu 


^ 


X — 




lbs. 




$ 


s 




lbs. 




$ 


$ 


Wheat 


60 


33-3 


.40 


13-33 


Oats 


32 


62.5 


.18 


11.25 










45 


IS- 00 








20 


12.50 










50 


16.67 








-25 


15-63 










60 


20.00 










30 


18.75 










75 


25.00 










35 


21.90 








I 


00 


33-33 










50 


31-25 


Corn... 


56 


35-7 




30 

35 


10.71 
12.50 


Rye 


56 


35-7 




40 
50 


14 28 
17-85 










40 


14.28 


Barley 


48 


41.7 




40 


16 68 










45 


16.06 










50 


20.83 








•50 


17.85 








.60 


25.02 



VALUATION OF FEEDING STUFFS. 

The commercial value of protein, fat, and carbohydrates 
in concentrated feeding stuffs has been calculated from the 
average composition and market price of common feeding 
stuffs as follows: 



^-Cost of one pound of— > 
Protein. Fat. Carbohydrates, 

In Germany. . .(1890) 3: 2: I (Konig, Wolff.) 

Connecticut (1888) 1.6 cts. 4.2 cts. .gGcts. (Jenkins.) 

(1890)1.4 

Delaware. . .(i88g) 1.23 

Wisconsin . .(1891) 1.5 

Indiana . . . .(1S91) i.o 

New Jersey. (1891) .91 

Minnesota. .(1S93) 3.1 

Vermont. - ..(1895)2.02 



2.9 


1.4 


' ' 


4.45 


.52 


(Penny.) 


3.6 


•5 


(Woll.) 


2.75 


.63 


(Huston.) 


5-91 


1. 12 


(Voorhees.) 


3.1 


.24 


(Hays.) 


- .19 


.91 


{Hills efaL) 



FARM ANIMALS. 21 



II. FARM ANIMALS. 



CHARACTERISTICS OF BREEDS OF LIVE 
STOCK. 

By Prof. J. A. Ckaig, formerly of Iowa Agricultural College. 

I. Light Horses. 

The Tkorotighbred. — Leading characteristics: running speed 
(Salvator, 1:35^, holds the world's mile record), quality, stam- 
ina, and ambition. Common colors : brown, bay, chestnut. 
Distinctive features : refined appearance, lengthy neck, deep 
chest, long body, straight croup, long thighs and pasterns, 
dense bone, firm muscle, active temperament, rangy type 
standing 16 hands. Most common defects : light bodies, 
lengthy pasterns, long legs, irritable temperament. Bred 
principally for racing, which has given them endurance and 
spirit. They are suited for mating with mares weighing 11 to 
12 cwt., with the object of producing strong drivers or stylish 
carriage and saddle horses. 

The American Trotter. — Chief characteristics : speed at the 
trotting gait. World's record for one mile against time is that 
of Alix, 2:o3f. The type of the leading campaigners is that 
towards which the trotter is tending; it is that of a horse re- 
quired to have the endurance, ambition, and conformation to 
maintain trotting speed. Most general features: intelligent 
heads, light necks, low deep chests, oblique shoulders, long 
forearm, short cannons, round body rising slightly over loin, 
long croup and thighs, low hocks. Most common defects: 
undersize, deficiency in style, finish, and substance. Sphere: 
coach or carriage horses, roadsters, and trotters. 



22 AGRICULTURE. 

Cleveland Bay. — Uniform in color, being bay with black 
points. They stand at least i6 hands and are horses of larger 
size and more power than those of most other breeds of light 
horses. Rough joints, coarse bone, and deficiency in actior are 
their most common defects. Their size, power, and evenness 
of disposition adapt them for general work on light farms, 
but owing to the defects mentioned they are not as popular for 
breeding road and carriage horses as those of other breeds. 

French Coach.— %n\oo\.\i, symmetrical, and generally of fine 
quality ; very graceful in movement, with high knee-action and 
good back-action. Heads intelligent looking ; necks graceful 
bodies snugly ribbed, and quarters muscular. As a rule, they 
are striking in appearance, being upstanding and high-headed. 
Common colors : bay, brown, and black. Best suited for 
breeding coach-horses with moderately fast and graceful action. 
Defects : coarseness and lack of prepotency in the stallions due 
to their mixed breeding. 

Hackney. — The typical hackney is a horse of extreme 
smoothness, with gracefully curved outlines. The head is 
light, neck muscular and curved, but free from heaviness ; 
shoulders smooth and laid well back; body circular, compact, 
short ; hips smooth ; quarters plump with muscle ; legs short, 
with tendons clearly defined. Their action is noted for its grace- 
fulness and stylishness, being very high ?n the forelegs, and the 
hock movement is regular. Common colors : bay and brown. 
They are usually about 15.3 hands. Best suited for production 
of high-stepping cab and coach horses for city driving. 

II. Heavy Horses. 

Clydesdale. — Usual colors: bay, brown, black, or chestnut with 
white markings. The head is intelligent in features, but some- 
times out of proportion with the other parts. Shoulder excep- 
tionally good ; being sloping, it gives them a free, easy, and 
long stride in the walk or trot ; arm well-muscled, and legs 
clean and flat, with the fine and long feather springing from 
the edge ; pasterns sloping, easing the feet from concussion; 



FARM ANIMALS. 23 

feet large and durable. The croup is muscular and the quarters 
especially heavily-muscled. Their combination cf weight, 
quality, and action is exceptional in draught-horses. 

Shire. — The best type is low, broad, and stout. They are 
heavily built, muscular, with heavy bone and slow movement. 
The shoulder is usually too upright, making the action too 
short and stilted. The body is of large girth, deep and 
strongly coupled, with broad, short back and heavily-muscled 
quarters. Deficiencies : lack of quality, sluggish temperament, 
and limited action. In general they are heavier than the 
Clydesdale, though there is little difference between representa- 
tive animals. The best type is suitable for breeding the 
heaviest class of draught-horses adapted to slow work demand- 
ing strength and heavy weight. 

Percheron. — Types : the original gray in color, and the 
modern of black color. Most peculiar characteristics of the 
former were their action, style, endurance, and strength. They 
had intelligent heads, prominent chests, round bodies, large 
bone, inclined to roundness. The modern type is shorter- 
legged, more compact and stouter, but lacking the size of the 
original. The Percheron's excellencies are seen in their active 
temperament, intelligent heads, crested neck, deep body, and 
wide croup. Their deficiencies appear in defective legs, being 
light or round, straight pasterns, feet narrow at the hoof, heads 
and quarters lacking muscle. Best type adapted for breeding 
energetic, quick-gaited, strong horses suited for draught work 
of light nature. 

Suffolk.— Qo\ox uniform, being some shade of chestnut. 
They are low-set, short-legged, deep-bodied, muscular horses, 
with clean bone and durable feet ; docile, easy keepers, and 
steady when working. General deficiency: a lack of weight due 
to their smaller size in comparison with other draught-horses. 
Suited for general farm labor ; they are not the highest-priced 
horses on the market owing to the demand for heavier weights. 



24 AGRICULTURE. 

III. Beef Cattle.* 

' Short-horns. — The three family types are: Bates, Booth, and 
Cruikshank. Bates, noted for style, fine heads, clean necks, 
straight level backs, light bone, and combination of milk and 
beefing qualities. Booths are especially excellent in girth, wide 
backs, lengthy quarters, deep flesh, and beefing qualities, though 
lacking in finish and style. Cruikshanks, noted for scale ; low, 
broad, deep forms, heavy flesh, and mossy coats. The short- 
horn breed is specially noted for beef form, early maturity, and 
thrift under a variety of conditions. Their weakness in con- 
stitution and sterility is traceable to in-and-in breeding and 
artificial treatment. Their chief utility is to give beef form, 
quality, and rapid fattening tendencies to grades for stall feed- 
ing. Some families possess unequalled combination of beefing 
and milking qualities. 

Aberdeen Angus. — Characteristic color, black. Head, 
hornless ; neck free from loose skin, exceptionally good 
shoulder- vein ; shoulder oblique, fitting close to body ; ribs 
deep, very circular ; hips moderately far apart, smoothly 
curved ; rump long, level, smooth ; thighs muscular, twist low 
and full, quarters long and rounded. Type : cylindrical, dis- 
tinguished for smoothness, symmetry and quality ; bone light, 
hide mellow, and coated with fine black hair. They are pre- 
potent and prolific. Chief utility, production of beef of high 
quality. 

Hereford. — Most popular color, dark claret or cherry, with 
white face, belly, switch, and small strip of white on neck and 
over shoulder. Type: low-set and broad; heavy in fore- 
quarters, with low heads ; full, deep chest ; hanging dewlap, 
level lack, wide thick loin, full quarters and thin thighs. 
Worst deficiencies, looseness in build and rough, coarse bone. 
They are strong-constitutioned, active rangers, prepotent and 
long-lived. Being active, hardy, and good feeders they make 
good grazing cattle, and on that account have been popular on 
ranches. 

Galloway. — Color black, no white admissible, except on 

•■* For description of breeds of dairy cattle, see Part II, Dairying. 



FARM ANIMALS. 25 

udder or below underline. Type: thick, close to ground, and 
symmetrical ; hair long, wavy, and thick ; head large, horn- 
less, with no scurs ; neck strong, giving a burly appearance 
to forequarters ; shoulders snug, legs short and heavy, barrel 
round, tight- ribbed ; quarter long and smooth ; flesh even over 
all parts; hardiness and strength of constitution, strong feat- 
ures. Require more time to mature and yield larger percentage 
of offal than most other breeds. They are liked as ranch 
cattle, as they are hardy, hornless, and yield excellent beef and 
robes. 

IV. Fine-wooled Sheep. 

Merino. — The two types include those wrinkled and those 
smooth in body. They are chiefly noted for the heavy weights 
of fine wool that they shear. The fleece is dense, even, ex- 
tending over all regions. The wool is bright, soft, fine, lustrous, 
and pure. They are hardy and strong in constitution, of a quiet 
disposition, and do well in large flocks. 

V. Mutton Sheep. 

Southdown. — Symmetrical, compact, close to the ground, and 
of fine quality ; head medium size, hornless ; forehead and 
face covered with wool, ears small, face brown or gray tint, 
neck short, breast broad, back and Join wide and straight, body 
deep, hips wide, twist full, fleece dense, and medium in length 
and fineness. The mutton is of high quality, and lambs mature 
early. They represent an exceptional combination of wool and 
mutton of fine quality. 

Shropshire. — Face and legs dark brown in color. They are 
symmetrical and stylish. Rams are required to weigh 225 lbs. 
in full flesh, and ewes 175 lbs. Head short, covered with wool, 
hornless; neck well attached, full; body circular, round ribbed; 
quarters lengthy, inclined to narrowness and slackness. The 
fleece dense, fibre strong, about three and one half inches in 
length. The ewes are prolific and kind nurses. They combine 
quality and quantity of wool and mutton in a high degree, and 
are adapted to conditions of general farming and rolling laud. 

Hampshire. — Color of face dark brown or black; head large, 
nose prominent, neck regular, taper from head to shoulder; 



26 AGRICULTURE. 

strong-boned ana lengthy. Especially noted for early develop- 
ment of lambs. They are vigorous and prepotent. The wool 
is short, dense, strong, and slightly coarse. 

Stiffolk. — Faces and legs deep black color. They are large 
sheep when mature ; lengthy and straight in form. Noted 
chiefly for prolificness and good milking and nursing qualities. 
A large percentage of lambs are reared in flocks of this breed; 
wool medium in quality and length. 

Oxford. — Face either brown or gray, and lengthy. When 
mature they are the heaviest of the Down breeds, being larger in 
size and heavier in bone. Their fleece is also heavier and the 
fibre longer, coarser, and more open than most others. Squarer 
in form than the Shropshires, and not so closely covered with 
wool. Adapted to strong land; respond readily to high feeding. 

Leicester. — Face bare arid pure white, body square, straightj 
forequarters exceptionally full, hindquarters rounded slightly. 
Offal is light, bone fine, but fat too plentiful. The Bordei 
type is stronger boned, heavier, and more vigorous than the 
English. The Leicester has been extensively used for crossing 
on grades. Wool lustrous, five or six inches long, soft, but 
too frequently open and absent on the belly. 

Cotswold. — Face white or slightly mixed with gray. Form 
large, square, upstanding, and stylish. A tuft of wool grows 
from forehead; fleece open, long, and heavily yielding. Body 
long, level, and wide. The gray-faced strain is considered 
hardier than the white-faced. The popularity of the breed lies 
in the large yield of wool and of mutton, though the quality of 
both is deficient. 

Lincoln. — The largest of the long-wooled breeds. The wool 
is long and coarse, and especially lustrous. Square in form 
and, when mature, very heavy. The mutton lacks quality. 

Cheviot. — Face bare, white, hornless; wool fine, and the 
fleece dense and even. Mutton agreeably flavored and fine- 
grained. They are hardy, active, prolific, and the lambs come 
active. They clip about four pounds of fine wool. Adapted to 
rough and high pasturage. 

Dorset. — Face white ; rams and ewes horned. Type : long, 
round-bodied, and compactly built. Wool medium in length, 
fineness, and weight; average clip 6 pounds. Chief character- 



FARM ANIMALS. 27 

istics: prolificness, hardiness, and breeding early, so as to drop 
Iambs in winter. 

Highland. — Rams and ewes horned, face and legs black and 
white. Low and blocky in type ; fleece long, coarse. Their 
mutton has a superior flavor. Mountain breed hardy, active, 
and very strong of constitution. 

VI. Swine. 

Bei-kslvre. — Color black, white on face, feet, tip of tail. Face 
short, dished; ears sharp-pointed, erect; jaws full, back broad, 
straight, full over shoulder ; loin thick, level ; hams excep- 
tionally full, legs short, strong, and straight. Sows prolific, 
good nurses. Active and vigorous in temperament. 

Poland- C/mta. — Color dark, spotted, or black; head small, 
slightly dished; ears drooping, girth full, ribs well sprung, deep; 
nindquarters lengthy, though inclined to be drooping. They 
tatten readily, reach heavy weights, and are quiet-dispositioned. 

Yorkshire. — White in color; separated into large, middle, and 
small varieties. The first-mentioned, are strong-boned, long- 
bodied, and deep-sided, and have mixed meat; middle or im- 
proved type, lighter in weight and bone, with smaller quantity 
of offal ; small variety, quick in maturing and compact in 
form. 

Chester- White. — White in color, strong-boned, vigorous, and 
attain to very heavy weights, though slow in maturing. Sows 
of good disposition and breeding qualities. 

Duroc- Jerseys. — Deep, cherry red in color, large size, good 
breeders, and liked in Southern countries because of ability to 
withstand heat. 

Victoria, — White in color with occasional black spots on skin; 
head small, face slightly dished ; skin free from scurf ; flesh 
of good quality and evenly laid over body. Yearling boars 
should weigh not less than 300 lbs. 

Tamzvorth. — Red or dark brown color ; snout very long, 
body narrow, exceptionally deep and long in sides. Their 
form and the mixture of fat and lean in their flesh make them 
a special bacon hog. 

Essex. — Color black; type : small, compact, early manuring, 
and yielding a large percentage of edible meat. 



28 AGRICULTURE. 



MARKET CLASSES OF FAR3I AN13IALS. 
A. — Horses. 

Drafters. — A typical draft horse, so considered in the market, 
should stand i6 hands or over; light draft horses range in height 
from 15.3 to 16. 1 hands. Drafters should weigh 1600 lbs. and 
over in fair condition. Heavy weight in addition to desirable 
conformation, soundness, and action enhances value. 

Loggers. — Horses of this class are heavy drafters, possessed 
of weight, great power, and strength of bone, but blemished 
or slightly unsound so that they cannot be sold to advantage 
for use in the cities. Largely bought by lumbermen for use in 
the woods. 

Farm chunks. — These are usually of mixed draft blood, stand 
15 hands or over and weigh 1 100-1500 lbs. 

General-purpose Horses. — These animals are not recognized 
as a standard market class, but form a large proportion of the 
entire number of horses marketed. They usually are serviceably 
sound and often of fair to good quality, but they lack the char- 
acteristics fitting a horse for a distinct m.arket class. 

Expressers. — This class comprises active, light draft horses 
that are expected to do most of their work at a trot. The 
typical expresser stands 15.2 to 16 hands, and weighs 1350 to 
1500 lbs. or over, according to the class of work to be done. 
They are commonly considered "draft horses with coach-horse 
finish." 

Bussers. — Horses of this class stand 15. i to 15.3 hands and 
weigh 1 200-1 400 lbs. Their chief work is done at a trotting gait, 
hence they must be active, energetic, straight, and somewhat 
stylish in carriage and gait. Many go abroad to serve as 
'trammers." 

Artillery Horses. — In this class geldings are required. They 
should be uniform, of a hardy color, from 15 J to 16 hands 
high, quick and strong in action, well-bred, of a kind disposi- 
tion, square trotters, well broken to harness, gentle under saddle, 
with easy mouths and gait. They should weigh 1 100-1250 lbs. 
and be from 5 to 8 years old. 



FARM AKIMALS. . 29 

Drivers. — The typical roadster should stand 15. i to 15.3 
hands high and weigh 950 to 1150 lbs. His purpose is to draw 
a light buggy on the road at a fairly rapid rale of speed for a 
considerable length of time. He should be graceful in form and 
action sprightly, pleasing, straight, and smooth in all gaits, his 
disposition good, and his legs and feet sound. 

Standard Bred. — This class includes trotters and pacers eligible 
to record in the trotting register and possessed of notable speed, 
and breed prepotency in that direction. 

Coachers. — A typical coacher stands 15.2 to 16 hands and 
weighs HOC to 1250 lbs. He should have high knee action and 
corresponding high hock action that comes from breeding rather 
than artificial methods of development. He must move fairly 
fast with much gracefulness of carriage, possess fine quality, 
be beautifully molded in all of his curves, and carry his head and 
tail high. While heavier, smoother, and more compact than the 
roadster, he must be showy and stylish to carry fine harness 
and draw handsome equipages. 

Wagon Horses. — These are used for parcel-delivery service 
by large department stores, etc. ; they are big overgrown coachers, 
stand 1 6. 1 hands and weigh 1250 lbs. 

Cohs. — A typical cob stands about 15. i, weighs 1000 to 1050 
lbs., is more compact and blocky than the coacher, yet must have 
style and beauty in a marked degree. His action must be 
extremely high and "trappy." 

Saddlers. — These horses vary considerably in type, size, and 
weight, but are, as a rule, 15. i to 15.3 hands high and weigh 
1000 to 1 150 lbs. They should have great style and quahty, 
smooth conformation, natural and thoroughly trained saddle 
gaits, intelligent, clean-cut countenances, sloping pasterns and 
shoulders, moderately high and narrow withers, short strong- 
coupled backs, strong and muscular thighs, and well-carried 
heads and tails. "Walk, trot, and canter" saddlers have become 
popular of recent years and sell at high prices. (See Alexander, 
Bull. No. 127, Wisconsin Experiment Station; also Obrecht, 
Bull. No. 122. Illinois Exp. Station.) 



30 AGRICULTURE. ' 

B. — Cattle. 

General Classes. 

1. Beef Cattle. — This class includes all grades of fat steers 
and heifers; also everything from common to prime and from 
light to heavy. It is finished condition that brings animals into 
this class. 

2. Butcher Stock. — This class includes animals that have not 
fattened well; also animals that have not been fed long enough 
to become properly fattened. It seldom includes steers of 
really good quality, as such will usually be sold as feeders. The 
bulk of butcher stock is made up of cows and heifers. 

3. Cutters and Canners. — In this class are included old thin 
cow^s and very thin bulls, steers, and heifers. The cutters must 
carry sufficient flesh to permit of the loin or rib or both being 
used for cutting on the block. Those animals which are so thin 
that no part of the carcass can be used for block purposes con- 
stitute the canners. 

4. Stackers and Feeders. — This class includer calves, yearlings, 
two-year-olds, and older cattle. Cattle 18 months old or older, 
which are ready for immediate use in the feed lot, are called 
feeders. Those which are younger are referred to as stockers. 

5. Veal Calves. — This includes all calves which are sold for 
immediate slaughter. 

Special Classes. 

In addition to the preceding general classes, a number of 
special classes are generally recognized and require to be named 
and defined. 

I. Texas and Western Range Cattle. — A few years ago the 
typical Texas steer had very long horns and legs, was thin and 
narrow bodied, and carried a large deep brand, and most of 
the cattle which came from Texas were of this description. 
But this type is rapidly disappearing. Animals of the best beef 
breeds have been imported into the State and used for breeding 
purposes, especially for crossing with the native stock, so that 
now many of the Texas cattle compare favorably with those 
from other sections of the country. There is, however, a wide 
range between the best and the poorest. 



FARM ANIMALS. 31 

The Western range cattle are classed with the Texas cattle, 
because formerly they were made up largely of Southern cattle 
which were driven northward to winter on the ranges north of 
the quarantine line. Now, however, a large percentage of the 
animals in this class are bred on the ranges of the West and 
Northwest. All the cattle in this class are branded. 

2. Distillers. — These are cattle that have been fattened on 
the by-products of distilleries. Formerly only inferior grades 
of cattle were purchased for feeding on distillery residues, but 
at present many feeders of better grades are used. When sent 
to market these cattle are preferred to many of the same grade, 
because they dress out a higher percentage of beef. 

3. Bahy Beef. — This term applies to choice or prime fat steers 
between i and 2 years old, weighing from 800 to 1000 lbs. 

4. Export Cattle. — The cattle exported are in the main good 
to choice steers, weighing from 1200 to 1500 lbs. Comparatively 
lew prime beef steers are brought for export, because of the 
high price they bring in the home market. 

5. Shipping Steers. — This term applies to the animals pur- 
chased in the Western markets for shipment to the large Eastern 
markets of the United States. They are mainly of medium 
and good grades, and range in weight from 1150 to 1600 
lbs. 

6. Dressed Beef Cattle. — This class includes such cattle as are 
purchased by the large packing firms of the Middle' West. The 
packers prefer medium to choice steers, weighing from 1200 to 
1400 lbs., to make up the bulk of their purchases, but conditions 
of supply and demand cause them to purchase animals of a much 
wider range in grade and weight, the extreme range in weight 
being from 800 to 1700 lbs. 

7. Stags. — This class includes such animals as have reached 
or at least approached maturity before castration and hence have 
the general conformation of bulls. Comparatively few of these 
come to the general markets, and they are of a wide range in 
quality, condition, and weight. A few are good enough for 
export, while the poorest must be sold for canners. (See Mum- 
ford, Bull. No. 78, Illinois Experiment Station, also Plumb, 
MarkeHng Live Stock, Farmers' Bull. No. 184.) 



AGRICULTURE. 



-Sheep. 



The market classification of sheep varies considerably in the 
different markets of our coimtry. Ordinarily they are, however, 
classed as follows: Western wethers, ewes, yearlings, and lambs, 
and native wethers, ewes, and lambs. These terms are self- 
explanatory. Western sheep are from the ranges of Montana, 
Wyoming, and other States beyond the Mississippi, and are 
strongly impregnated with merino blood. They lack the middle 
wool or mutton characteristics of sheep from States east of 
the Mississippi. Western sheep and lambs weigh lighter and 
dress out less fat than Eastern stock. 

The various classes are graded on a range of quality, from 
common to choice or extra prime. (See Plumb, Farmers' Bull. 
No. 184.) 

D. — Swine. 

Prime Heavy Hogs. — These are prime heavy fat -back hogs, 
weighing 350-500 lbs., the extreme of the fat or lard hog. Prime 
implies marked evidence of ripeness and maturity. 

Butcher Hogs are principally barrows; they are used for the 
fresh-meat trade; about 25 per cent, of the hogs coming to 
Chicago are of this class; they range in age, with good care and 
feeding, from about 6 months for the light butchers to one year 
for the heavy ones. They are subdivided into heavy, 280-350 
lbs.; medium, 220-280 lbs.; and light butchers, 180-220 lbs. 
The heavy butchers include prime and good grades, and the 
two latter subclasses, prime, good, and common grades. 

Packing Hogs. — These are, as a whole, of a poorer grade than 
the butcher hogs. They include old brood sows, and all other 
hogs that are heavy enough for this class and not good enough 
for the butcher class, except the poorer classes, such as roughs, 
boars, and coarse stags. About 40 per cent of the hogs on the 
Chicago market are of this class. They range in age upwards 
to about 9 months and weigh in the three subclasses, 200-280,^ 
250-300, and 300-500 lbs., each of these being graded as good, 
common, or inferior stock. 

Light Hogs. — This class includes all hogs within the weight 
limits of 125 and 220 lbs., except roughs, stags, and boars, which 



FARM ANIMALS. 33 

form separate classes. About 15 per cent of the hogs on the 
Chicago market belong here. They range in age from 5 to 8 
months, and vary considerably in form, quality, a*nd condition, 
hence the subclasses are of more importance than in the preced- 
ing classes. 

Bacon Hogs are used for the production of bacon, which is 
pork that has been salted and then smoked. English bacon 
hogs weigh 160-220 lbs. and United States, 155-195 lbs. The 
latter are graded as choice, good, and common. 

Light Mixed Hogs. — This is a somewhat miscellaneous class, 
comprising about 55 per cent of the light hogs on the Chicago 
market. This class is the "dumping ground" for the outcasts 
3f the two former classes of hogs. They range in age from 5 
to 7 months, and weigh 150 to 220 lbs. They are principally 
used for the fresh-meat trade. 

Light Light Hogs. — Hogs in this class range in weight from 
125 to 150 lbs., and in age from 5 to 6 months. About 25 per 
cent of the light hogs on the Chicago market belongs to this 
rlass and are used mainly for the fresh-meat trade. This and the 
preceding subclass include hogs of good, common, and inferior 
grades. 

Pigs range in weight from 60 to 125 lbs., and in age from 
3I to 6 months. They are choice, good, or common pigs in 
proportion to their approach to the ideal of a fat hog. 

Roughs. — This class includes hogs of all sizes that are coarse, 
rough, and lacking in condition. The pork from these hogs 
is used for the cheaper trade for both packing and fresh-meat 
purposes. 

Stags. — These are hogs that were boars beyond the pig stage 
and have been subsequently castrated. They sell with a dockage 
of 80 lbs. According to their freedom from stagginess and their 
quality and condition, these hogs are sold in the class with the 
various grades of packing hogs or with boars. 

Boars. — These are always sold in a class by themselves, and 
bring from two to three dollars per cwt. less than the best hogs 
on the market at the same time. The pork from these hogs is 
used to supply the cheaper class of trade and also for making 
sausage. 



34 (' AGRICULTURE. 

Miscellaneous Classes: Roasting Pigs. — Three to six weeks 
old and weighing 15 to 30 lbs. Ti.ey come to nia"rket in small 
numbers and only during the holiday season. They are usually 
of a very uniform grade and command prices ranging from 
those paid regular live hogs to that paid for poultry. 

Feeders. — These are hogs that are bought on the market and 
taken back to the country to be further fed. This class is of 
but small importance, as this practice of feeding is followed 
only to a very small extent. 

Governments. — These are hogs that are not considered sound 
in every respect by the Government inspectors, and are retained 
for further inspection. They are usually bought by local dealers 
and taken to one of the smaller packing houses, wheie they are 
slaughtered under the supervision of an inspector. If their 
flesh is found unfit for human food, they are tanked and used for 
fertilizers. 

Pen Holders are long-legged hogs of poor form, coarse in 
quality, and much lacking in condition, kept at the stock yards 
simply for the purpose of holding pens for commission men. 

Dead Hogs. — These are hogs killed in transit, and are used 
for the manufacture of grease, soap, and fertilizers. If they 
weigh 100 lbs. or over, they sell for 75 cents per cwt.; if less, 
they furnish no revenue to the producer or sMpper, the cost of 
handling them being held equal to their value. (See Dietrich, 
Bull. No. 97, Illinois Experiment Station.) 



FARM AKIMALS. 



35 



TABLE FOR ESTIMATING LIVE WEIGHT OF 
CATTLE, (Whitcher.) 



Girth in 
Feet and 


Store Cattle. 


Medium Fat. 










Inches. 


Fair Shape. 


Good Shape. 


Fair Shape. 


Good Shape. 


Ft. In. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


5 o 


650 


700 


700 


7SO 


S I 


67s 


725 


725 


775 


5 2 


700 


750 


750 


800 


5 3 


725 


775 


775 


825 


5 4 


750 


800 


800 


850 


5 5 


775 


82s 


82s 


875 


5 6 


800 


850 


850 


900 


5 7 


825 


875 


875 


925 


5 8 


850 


900 


900 


950 


5 9 


87s 


925 


925 


975 


5 lo 


900 


950 


950 


1000 


5 II 


925 


975 


975 


1025 


6 o 


950 


1000 


1000 


1050 


6 I 


1000 


1050 


1050 


1 100 


6 2 


1050 


II 00 


1 100 


1150 


6 3 


noo 


1150 


1150 


1200 


6 4 


II 50 


1200 


1200 


1250 


6 5 


1200 


1250 


1250 


1300 


6 6 


1250 


1300 


1300 


1350 


6 7 


1300 


1350 


1350 


1400 


6 8 


1350 


1400 


1400 


1450 


6 9 


1400 


1450 


1450 


1500 


6 lo 


1450 


1500 


1500 


1550 


6 II 


1500 


1550 


1550 


1600 


7 o 


1550 


1600 


1600 


1650 


7 I 


1600 


1650 


1650 


1700 


7 2 


1650 


1700 


1700 


1750 


7 3 


1700 


1750 


1750 


1800 


7 4 


1750 


1800 


1800 


1850 


7 5 


1800 


1850 


1850 


1900 


7 6 


1850 


1900 


1900 


1950 



36 AGRICULTURE. 

DETERMINATION OF THE AGE OF FARM 
ANIMALS BY THEIR TEETH. 

(U. S. Department ok Agriculture.) 

Horse. — The horse has 24 temporary teeth. The male 
has 40 permanent teeth, the female 36 or 40. The smaller 
number is more usual in females, due to the lack of the tusks. 
The temporary teeth consist of 12 incisors and 12 molars; 
the 4 center front teeth, 2 above and 2 below, are called 
pinchers ; the next 4 are called intermediate or lateral, and 
the next 4 corner teeth. The permanent teeth consist of 12 
incisors, 4 tusks, and 24 molars. The dental star is a 
yellowish ring appearing next the enamel on the table or 
crown of the tooth. The following table shows approxi- 
mately the changes of the teeth with age : 

3 to 10 days: Temporary pinchers and 3 molars cut. 
40 to 60 days : Temporary intermediates or laterals cut. 

6 to 9 months : Temporary corner teeth cut. 
19 to 25 months : Leveling of temporary corner teeth. 
2I to, 3 years: Pinchers replaced by permanent teeth. 
3^ to 4 years : Intermediates or laterals replaced. 

4 to i\\ years : Tusks cut. 
A\ to 5 years : Corner teeth replaced. 

5 to 6 years : Leveling of lower pinchers. 

7 years : Leveling of permanent intermediates. 

8 years : Dental star and notches in pinchers. 

9 years : Dental star in intermediates. 

10 years : Dental star in corner teeth. 
Cattle. — Cattle have 20 temporary and 32 permanent teeth. 

The temporary are 8 incisors in the lower jaw and 12 
molars. The permanent teeth are 8 incisors and 24 molars. 
Cattle have no incisors in the upper jaw. The table for 
cattle is as follows : 

At birth : Temporary incisors appear. 

5 to 6 months : Teeth decayed on border. 

6 to 7 months : Leveling of pinchers. 
12 months : Leveling of first intermediates. 
15 months : Leveling of the second intermediates. 
18 months : Intermediate incisors become stumps. 



FARM ANIMALS. 37 

2 years : Permanent pinchers cut. 

2^ to 3 years : Permanent first intermediates cut. 
3^ years : Second intermediates or laterals cut. 

4 years : Corner teeth replaced. 

5 to 6 years : Leveling of permanent pinchers. 

7 years : Leveling of first intermediates. 

8 years : Leveling of second intermediates. 

9 years : Leveling of corner teeth. 

10 to 12 years: Dental star in pinchers and intermediates. 
13 years : Dental star in corner teeth. 

Sheep. — Sheep have 20 temporary and 32 permanent 
teeth. The table for changes is as follows : 

1 month : Milk incisors appear. 

3 months : Milk incisors decayed on border. 
15 months : Permanent incisors cut. 

2 years : First permanent intermediates cut. 

33 months : Second permanent intermediates cut. 
40 months : Corner teeth cut. 

Hogs. — Hogs have 28 temporary and 44 permanent teeth. 
The table for changes is as follows : 

At birth : Temporary corner incisors cut. 

I to 2 months : Temporary central incisors cut. 

3 months : Temporary lateral incisors cut. 

9 to 12 months : Permanent corner incisors cut. 
12 to 15 months : Permanent central incisors cut. 
18 to 20 months : Permanent lateral incisors cut. 



38 



AGRICULTURE. 



BODY TEMPERATURE OP FARM ANIMALS. 



(Dammann.) 



Deg. F. 

Horse 99.5-101,3 

Cattle 100.4-103.1 

Sheep 101.3-105.8 



Deg. F. 

Swine loi. 3-104.0 

Dog 99.5-103.1 



The temperature is greater after exercise than after rest, 
and in the evening, as a rule, 0.2-1,1° F. higher than in the 
morning. 



DURATION AND FREQUENCY OF HEAT IN 
FARM ANIMALS. (Wolff.) 



Mares. 
Cows. . 
Ewes., 
Sheep. 



In Heat for 



5-7 days 
2-3 '' 
2-3 ' 
2-4 



If not In preg- 

nated, ht.i vvil 

Recur af;.er 



3-4 weeks 
3-4 " 
17-28 days 
9-12 



After Coming In, 

Heat will 

Recur after 



5-9 days 
21-28 '• 

7 months 
4-5 weeks* 



* 8-9 weeks at the latest. 
PERIOD OF INCUBATION OF POULTRY. 



Name of Fowl. 


Days. 


Name of Fowl. 


Days. 




21 
25 

28 
28 
25 


Goose 

Partridge 

Duck, Barbary 

Turkey 




Pheasant 

Duck, common 

Pea fowl 


24 
30 
28 











FARM ANIMALS. 



39 



GESTATION CAL.ENDAR. 

Average Gestation Period. 

Mares, 481^ weeks (340 days, extremes 307 and 412 days). 
Cows, 40}^ " (283 " " 240 " 311 " ). 

Ewes, 22 " (150 " " 146 " 157 " ). 

So7vs, t6 " (112 " " log " 143 " ). 



Time 


of 


Mares. 


Cows, 


Ewes, 


Sows, 


Serv 


ce. 


340 Days. 


283 Days. 


150 Days. 


112 Days. 


Jan, 


I 


Dec. 6 


Oct. 10 


May 30 


April 22 




6 


" II 


" 15 


June 4 


" 27 


" 


II 


" 16 


" 20 


9 


May 2 


" 


16 


" 21 


" 25 


14 


7 


«' 


21 


" 26 


J' 30 


" 19 


" 12 


" 


26 


t" 31 


Nov. 4 


24 


W '7 




31 


Jan. 5 


9 


' 29 


" 22 


Feb. 


5 


" 10 


" 14 


July 4 


" 27 


" 


10 


" 15 


" 19 


9 


June I 


" 


15 


" 20 


24 


" 14 


6 


" 


20 


" 25 


^" ^9 


19 


" II 


" 


25 


' 30 


Dec. 4 


" 24 


" 16 


Mar. 


2 


Feb. 4 


" 9 


" 29 


" 21 


" 


7 


9 


" 14 


Aug. 3 


" 26 


" 


12 


" 14 


" 19 


8 


July I 


" 


17 


'' 19 


" 24 


" 13 


6 


" 


22 


24 


" 29 


18 


" II 


" 


27 


Mar. I 


Jan. 3 


" 23 


" 16 


Apri 


J 


6 


8 


" 28 


" 21 


tt 


6 


" ir 


" 13 


Sept. 2 


" 26 


" 


II 


" 16 


" 18 


" 7 


" 31 


" 


16 


" 21 


!' ^3 


" 12 


Aug. 5 


" 


21 


" 26 


" 28 


" 17 


" 10 


" 


26 


" 31 


Feb. 2 


" 22 


" IS 


May 


I 


April 5 


7 


" 27 


" 20 


" 


6 


10 


" 12 


Oct. 2 


" 25 


" 


II 


" 15 


17 


7 


" 30 


" 


16 


" 20 


" 22 


'* 12 


Sept. 4 


" 


21 


" 25 


" 27 


" 17 


9 


" 


26 


" 30 


Mar. 4 


'* 22 


14 


" 


31 


May 5 


9 


" 27 


" 19 


June 


5 


" 10 


" 14 


Nov. I 


" 24 


" 


10 


'' 15 


" 19 


6 


' ^" ^9 


" 


15 


20 


" 24 


" II 


Oct. 4 


" 


20 


" 25 


" 29 


" 16 


" 9 


" 


25 


•' 30 


April 3 


" 21 


" 14 


" 


30 


June 4 


8 


" 26 


" 19 


July 


5 


" 9 


" 13 


Dec. I 


\ 

24 




10 


" 14 


" 18 


6 


" 29 


" 


15 


" 19 


" 23 


" II 


Nov. 3 




20 


24 


" 28 


16 


8 



40 



AGRICULTURE. 



GESTATION CALENDAR.— ( Continued.) 




Directions. — Find the date of breeding in the first column, and fol- 
low the horizontal line in which it appears until the date in the proper 
column (Mares, Cows, etc.) is reached. If bred, e.g., July 26, add one 
day to the required date; if July 27 or 28, add 2 or 3 days, as the case 
may be. 



FARM ANIMALS. 41 

FEEDING AND GENERAL CARE OF POULTRY. 

By Prof. Wm. P. Wheeler, of N. Y, (Geneva) Experiment Station. 

Of the kinds of land birds and of water fowls under do- 
mestication the common "barnyard" fowls, of one generai 
type, but of countless individual variations, and their 
pure-bred varieties, are those usually thought of when tlie 
subject of poultry is mentioned, and these are the fowls of 
most general practical interest. It is remarkable that the 
common fowl, although so widely bred, and for so long, in 
Europe and America has no distinctive English name. 

Ducks, turkeys, and geese constitute greater or smaller 
portions of the market poultry according to the particular 
locality and season, but the common fowl, besides produc- 
ing most of the table poultry, is almost alone called upon 
for the egg supply. 

The relative prices of eggs and market poultry, the 
proximity of markets, as well as the prices of foods, deter- 
mine the relative profit in keeping larger or smaller breeds, 
even with eggs as the special object. The meat value of 
every fowl is of consideration sooner or later, and while 
the smaller hens will produce eggs cheaper, the greater 
net piofit from hatching to market per hen may be with 
the larger breed. 

Most of the pure-bred varieties have their character- 
istics fairly established, so that it is better business policy 
to employ them rather than the uncertain mongrels, which, 
besides their unknown capabilities, are not less likely to 
suffer from long and careless inbreeding. The fancier who 
is fitted by judgment and experience to inbreed his stock 
closely will know how far he can go with safety; but one 
who finds it necessary to inquire about the advisability of 
inbreeding had better not attempt any. 

Among the breeds that lay white-shelled eggs, Haij 
burgs, when of vigorous ancestry, probably are the most 
prolific. They certainly are exceptional layers, although 
the size of the egg is small. The Hamburg varieties pos- 
sess in unusual degree pure-bred characteristics. Occa- 
sional complaints have been made in recent years concern- 
ing their stamina. 



42 AGRICULTUEE. 

For egg production the Leghorns are typical fowls, and where 
white-shelled eggs are wanted, the Leghorn varieties are more 
widely kept than any others. 

The Minorcas, other members of the Mediterranean class, 
excel the Leghorns in size of eggs, but do not equal them in 
number. 

Some strains of several newer breeds are not far from the 
Leghorn in prolificacy. 

Of the French breeds the Houdan is most widely bred in this 
country, and, for such an excellent table fowl, is an exceptional 
layer of large white eggs. 

The Polish, often good layers, have sometimes suffered in 
vigor because of their beauty, which admirers hesitate to risk 
marring by introduction of distant blood. 

Of the Asiatics, which lay brown-shelled eggs, the Langshar: 
is high in favor with practical poultrymen. The Brahma, the 
largest of the pure breeds, also ranks high and lays large eggs 
Those strains, however, bred for early laying are usually much 
inferior in size to the standard birds. The Cochin varieties 
are more particularly the pride of the fancier than of the farmer 

Of the American breeds the Plymouth Rock is undoubtedly 
the most popular. Its type of plumage possessses an unusual 
strength, even in blood much diluted, and faint reflections oi 
the blue barring are seen in very distant relatives of the pure 
breed. The perfect markings of the showroom bird are, how- 
ever, quickly lost. The American breeds lay brown-shelled 
eggs. Different flocks vary as much as the breeds or varietie 
in productiveness. 

Many other breeds and varieties recognized by the American 
Poultry Association are of considerable economic value, but 
are less commonly kept. 

In feeding most farm animals the usual purpose is only to 
secure meat, wool, milk, or work, and not always is consideration 
necessarily given to the breeding condition and the breeding 
season. When poultry is kept for other than fancy purposes, 
the life of the individual fowl is so short that there is not only 
an annual necessity of growing young birds with several more 
or less complete sets of plumage, but egg production virtually 



FARM ANIMALS. 43 

implies continual reproduction, for the ultimate constituents of 
the egg are, with the exception of the amount obtained from the 
air, all that are combined in the living chick. 

The body of a Leghorn pullet, about nine months old, in 
active laying, contains about 56 per cent of water, 21 per cent 
of different nitrogenous constituents, 18 per cent of fat, 3 per 
cent of ash or mineral matter, and 2 per cent of other substances. 
Leghorn hens almost two years old and laying showed an average 
composition of 55.7 per cent water, 21.6 per cent nitrogenous 
matter, 17.0 per cent fat, 3.8 per cent ash constituents, and 1.7 
per cent other substances. There was found in the body of 
a mature capon about 41.6 per cent of water, 19.4 per cent 
nitrogenous matter, 33.9 per cent fat, t,.'j per cent ash, and 1.4 
per cent other substances. 

Notwithstanding the fact that the problem of poultry feeding 
is much more complex than that of feeding most other farm stock, 
fewer carefully collected data are available in formulating feed- 
ing standards for poultry than for cattle. The following rations 
for laying hens are, however, near the average of those that have 
given best results. They are stated at the rate per 1000 lbs. 
live weight, to compare with the standards which have been 
used in feeding other animals. 

One thousand pounds live weight of laying hens, of about 
three pounds average weight, require from 65 to 100 pounds of 
total food, less bulky than that for the cow, or 55 pounds or 
more of water-free food per day, containing about 10 pounds 
digestible protein, 35 pounds digestible nitrogen-free extract 
and fiber, and 4 pounds of fat. From this ration the he s would 
produce generally from 15 to 30 pounds of eggs containing from 
5 to 10 lbs. dry matter, one pound of eggs being produced from 
about 3 lbs. water-free food, one pound of dry matter of eggs 
for each 9 lbs. water-free food. 

For one thousand pounds live weight of he-s of about six 
pounds average weight, there should be fed from 50 to 80 lbs. 
of food per day, containing about 40 pounds of water-free food. 
There should be in this about 6 pounds of digestible protein, 23 
pounds of digestible nitrogen-free extract and fiber, and 2 pounds 
of digestible fat. 



44 AGRICULTURE. 

The amount of food required per day per hen varies according 
to the size and somewhat with the season. A smaller hen will 
eat more in proportion to live weight than a larger one. The 
difference in amount of food consumed by larger and smaller 
hens is less when laying than at other times when enough for 
maintenance only need be eaten. 

A Cocliin or Brahma hen when laying requires from 4I to 
8 ounces of food per day, of which 3I ounces or more is dry 
matter. A hen of Leghorn size when laying requires from 3I 
to 6 ounces of total food, or 3 ounces of water-free food per day. 

A much larger amount of food in proportion to the live weight 
is required by the chicks than by the older fowls. The amount 
of water-free food required for every one hundred pounds live 
weight fed is 10.6 lbs. at about one pound average weight; at 
two pounds 7.5 lbs.; at three pounds 6.4 lbs.; at four pounds 
5.5 lbs.; at five pounds 5.3 lbs.; at six pounds 4.9 lbs.; at seven 
pounds 4.7 lbs.; at eight pounds 4 lbs.; at nine pounds 3.3 lbs,; 
at ten pounds average live weight 3.2 lbs. The amounts of 
fresh food equivalent to these weights would be correspondingly 
greater. These are the amounts taken by growing fowls which 
normally attain to the higher weights given, and which are still 
immature and growing rapidly when at five and six pounds 
average weight. 

For young chicks the nutritive ratio of the ration fed can be 
somewhat narrower than those given for laying hens, and for 
fattening the ration can have a very much wider ratio, although 
only for short periods. 

For one hundred hens about 16 quarts of clean water per day 
is required, especially in dry hot weather. In each dozen eggs 
there is about a pint of water. 

A variety of food is essential. 

Young hens, especially of the better laying breeds, when in full 
laying, can be freely fed all they will readily eat, but older hens 
and the young ones when not laying should be fed only enough to 
keep them eager for food. Salt should be fed mixed with the 
food, but not large coarse crystals. One ounce of salt per day 
for one hundred hens is a good proportion. 

Animal food and green or succulent vegetable food, as well 



FARM ANIMALS. 45 

as grain, should always be fed to hens that are confined. It 
is very important that ducks should have these foods, especially 
growing ducklings. 

Some form of grit should be liberally supplied. 

A largely grain ration will not contain the lime required by 
laying hens, and oyster-shells or some other form of carbonate 
of lime will supply this deficiency. 

A grass run is better than any substitute in summer, but no 
run should contain hens in such a number as to kill the grass. 

Common fowls, especially laying hens, must be kept in moder- 
ately small flocks. Where large numbers are kept, they should 
be divided in small lots in separate pens and yards. Ten to 
twenty in a pen give better results than larger numbers, although 
flocks twice as large can be profitably managed by experienced 
poultrymen. The laying hens should be kept separated from 
those not laying. 

Hens will not always moult early enough to resume laying 
before midwinter. Chicks should be hatched in March and 
April if eggs are to be obtained from the pullets in November. 
Asiatics, to begin laying in the fall, should be hatched in February 
and March. 

The best results in every respect cannot be secured where the 
average space of open run available per hen is much less than 
ICO square feet. The average floor-space per hen indoors should 
be about lo square feet. 

Exercise is of the utmost importance, especially for laying and 
breeding stock, and a good way to assure this in winter-time 
is to scatter the grain in straw or any clean and dry substitute. 

Dampness is fatal, and dry warm houses free from draughts 
are essential in winter. The floors should be of dry earth or 
fine gravel, or wooden floors covered with straw or dry sand. 
The houses should be warm enough to prevent freezing of water, 
but should not be warmed by heating apparatus more than will 
insure against freezing. 



46 



AGRICULTURE. 



LOSS IN WEIGHT OF EGGS DURING INCUBATION. 

(Stewart and Atwood,) 

Directions for ascertaining the loss in weight of eggs during 
incubation. 

After placing the eggs upon the trays ready for the incubator, 
set the trays upon a pair of scales reading to ounces and note 
the total weight of the eggs and trays. (The trays should be 
thoroughly dry.) After a few days weigh again. Subtract 
this from the first weight. This will give the actual loss in the 
weight of the eggs. 

Example. — Suppose that you have 208 eggs on the trays; 
that the first weight with trays is 24 lb. 2 oz., and that on the 
sixth day the weight is 23 lb. 6 oz. Then the loss in weight is 
12 ounces. Now look in the table for the loss in weight of 100 
eggs for six days. 'This is 10 ounces. Ten ounces multiplied 
by 208 gives 20.8 ounces, which is the calculated loss for 208 
eggs for six days. Therefore the eggs have not been losing 
weight as rapidly as they should, and the eggs should be given 
more ventilation or the incubator should be removed to a drier 
location. (It is assumed that the eggs are kept uniformly at 
the proper temperature.) After the eggs have been tested for 
the infertile ones, weigh again and proceed as before. 

Rules. — If the eggs have lost too much weight, give more 
moisture, or less ventilation, but in reducing ventilation great 
care should be used, as pure air in the egg chamber is abso- 
lutely necessary. If the eggs have not lost enough weight, 
open the ventilators, or place the incubator in a drier place. 
The table shows normal loss in weight of 100 eggs in ounces 
for the first nineteen days of incubation. 



Days. Loss in O: 

1 1 .65 

2 3-31 

3 4.96 

4 6.62 

S 8-2« 

6 10.00 

7 11.72 

8 T3.44 

9 • 1516 

lo 16.88 



Davs. Loss in Oz 

II.' 18.60 

12 20.33 

13 22.10 

14 23.88 

IS 25.66 

16 27.44 

17 29. 21 

18 30-99 

19 32.77 



FARM ANIMALS. 



47 



STANDARD WEIGHTS OF POULiTRY. 

(Am. Poultry Asso.) 



Cock. Cockerel. 



A. American Breeds. 
Plymouth Rocks, Barred and 

Pea-combed Barred lbs 

Plymouth Rocks, White. ..." 
Wyandottes, Silver, Golden, and 

White lbs 

Javas, Black " 

Javas, Mottled and White ..." 

American Dominiques " 

Jersey Blues " 



B. Asiatic Breeds. 

Brahmas, Light 

Brahmas, Dark 

Cochins, Buff, Partridge, White 

and Black lbs 

Langshans " 

C. Other Breeds of Poultry. 

Minorcas, Black and White. . lbs 

Redcaps 

Houdans 

Crevecoeurs 

La Fleche 

Dorkings, White 

Dorkings Silver Gray. . . . 

Dorkings, Colored 

Bantams, Game oz. 

Bantams, Golden Sebright, Sil- 
ver Sebright, Rose-combed 
White, Rose-combed Black, 
and Booted White oz. 

Bantams, Pekin or Cochin . . " 

Bantams, Japanese and White- 
crested White oz. 

Russians lbs. 

D. Turkeys. 

Bronze lbs. 

Narragansett " 

Buff, Slate and Black " 

White " 

E. Ducks. 

Pekin and Cayuga lbs. 

Aylesbury and Rouen " 

Muscovy. Colored and White.. " 
Crested White " 



F. Geese. 

Toulouse and Embden. . . . 

African 

Chinese, Brown and White 
Canada 



..lbs 



9.5 
9.5 

8.5 
10 
10 

8.5 
10 



11 
9.5 



7.5 

7 



8.5 
7.5 



9.5 
22 



26 

8.5 



Adult 
Drake. 

8 . 

9 
10 

7 

Adult 
Gander. 
25 
20 
16 
16 



8 
8 

7.5 
8.5 
8.5 
7.5 

7 



10 



6.5 



7.5 



24 
22 

18 
16 

Young 
Drake. 

7 
8 



Young 
Gander. 

20 

16 

12 

12 



Hen. 



7.5 



6.5 

8.5 

8 

6.5 



9.5 

8.5 



8.5 

7 



6.5 
6.5 
6 
7 

7.5 
6 

6.5 
7.5 
20 



22 



20 
22 
18 
16 

Adult 
Duck. 

7 



6 

Adult 
Goose. 

2.3 

18 

14 

14 



Pullet, 



6.5 



5.5 
6.5 
6.5 
5.5 
5 



5.5 

5 

5 

6 

6.5 

5 

5.5 



18 



20 
5.5 



15 

14 
12 
10 

Young 

Duck. 

6 

7 
7 
5 

Young 
Goose. 

18 

14 

10 

10 



48 



AGRICULTURE. 



SYNOPSIS OF BREEDS OF POULTRY. 

(M. Lemoine.) 



Breeds. 



Andalusian 

Brahma (light) 

Cochin (buff) 

Crave Coeur 

Dorking (silver gray) 

(dark) 

Game 

Hamburgs (silver spangled) . . . 
" (golden pencilled). 

Houdan 

La Fleche 

langshan , 

Leghorn (brown) 

Minorca (black) 

Plymouth Rock , 

Scotch Gray 

Wyandottes 



^W 



oz. 

29I4 

281^ 

24 

33 
24 

26 
29}^ 
27 
22 

28^ 

29 
25 



^ 






T3 


^4i 





4-1 J3 


rt 


v^ 


bjo 


^s 


.5?i?« 


>'^ 


<u 


i^l'O 


JUOQO 


._o 


1$ 




^ 


lbs. 


lb. 


oz. 


lb. oz. 


5-6 


3 


1 


2 15 


8-10 


4 


11 


5 


8-10 


4 


q 


5 4-?^ 


8-9 


4 


9^ 


4 mH 


7-10 


5 


4J/2 


4 14 


6- 9 


S 


4 


3 12 


5- 6 


3 


isV^ 


2 7% 


4- 5 


2 




2 7-M 


3^.-4 


I 


15% 


2 7^ 


6- 7 


3 


7 


2 10I4 


6-7 
7-10 


3 

4 


41 


2 9-M 

5 'M 


5-6 


3 


IS^ 


2 I0I4 


5V^-7 








6-7^ 








6 


3 


4^« 


2 12 


5^^-? 









Ot3 . 

oz. 
6*4 
9^ 
17^ 
73^ 
6^ 
6^ 
4V^ 
4^ 
4^ 
6% 
6f| 
7^ 
4% 



6% 



HEREDITY. 

By Prof. Thos. Shaw, formerly of Minnesota Experiment Station. 

Heredity in breeding relates to transmission. It is 
doubtless governed by fixed laws, but many of these are 
as yet imperfectly understood. It may be defined as the 
outcome of the operation of that law whereby properties 
and qualities of like kind with those of the parents are 
transmitted to the offspring. This transmission is cer- 
tainly comprehensive in its character, since it relates to 
structure, function and qualities, and indeed to every 
feature of the organization. But in instances not a few 
there are apparent exceptions to this law of transmission. 
These, however, are apparent rather than real. They 
appear to us as exceptions because of the limitations of 
our knowledge of this great question. These supposed 
exceptions are doubtless the result of the predominant in- 
fluence of other laws acting in opposition to the hereditary 
tendency, and it is characterized as normal, abnormal, 
and acquired, according to its nature. 



FARM ANIMALS. 49 

The heredity of normal characters means the transmis- 
sion of those characters which are natural to the type. 
These may be original traits bestowed upon the species, 
as for instance, timidity in sheep; or they may have been 
acquired and rendered permanent by long-continued trans- 
mission, as in the changed form of all the improved breeds 
of domestic animals. The heredity of abnormal characters 
means the transmission of irregular characters, or those 
which have deviated from the natural and acquired char- 
acteristics of the type. These abnormal characters may 
appear as malformations of structure, derangement of 
function, or they may assume one or the other of various 
forms of disease. Illustrations of the first are found in 
certain families with an irregular number of fingers and 
toes; of the second in the inheritance of deafness, dumb- 
ness and impaired vision; and of the third, in the reap- 
pearance in the offspring of certain diseases possessed by 
the parents, as, for instance, any of the forms of scrofula. 

The laws which govern heredity are those also which 
determine the results in practical breeding. In practice 
the rules which govern it are almost entirely empirical in 
their origin, since they have been almost exclusively de- 
rived from the accepted methods of the most successful 
breeders. Those who have given thought to the question 
will concede that breeding live-stock is at once a science 
and an art. They will see in it a science in so far as it 
discovers and systematically arranges those truths and 
principles which relate to the improvement of live-stock, 
and it will appear to them an art in so far as they perceive 
that those principles can be successfully utilized in prac- 
tice. It is apparent therefore that the relation between the 
science and the art of breeding is both close and intimate. 
Without some knowlege of the former the latter is not 
likely to be successfully practised, and the measure of 
success which attends the efforts of the breeder will be 
largely proportionate to the measure of the knowledge 
which he may possess of the principles of heredity. 

Reference has been made to certain laws which govern 
transmission. Of these three may be considered as funda- 



50 AGRICULTURE. 

mental, viz.: first, the law that "like begets like"; sec- 
ond, the law or principle of variation; and third, the law 
or principle known as atavism. Since these laws or prin- 
ciples appear to us to lack uniformity and regularity of 
action, the art of breeding is in consequence much more 
complicated and uncertain than it would otherwise be. 
This want of uniformity and of regularity of action, how- 
ever, is apparent rather than real. But so long as we are 
ignorant of the cause or causes of these apparent irregu- 
larities in transmission, we are unable to prevent them. 
And yet there is so much of uniformity in the action of 
these laws that the intelligent breeder cannot be said to 
play at a game of chance. If well posted in the art, his 
efforts will in the main be entirely successful. 

The law that " /z/('^ begets like'" implies that the char- 
acteristics of the parents will appear in their offspring. 
This law would seem to pervade all animated nature ; 
generally speaking it is uniform in its action, but there 
are some exceptions. Were it not so, examples to illus- 
trate such a law of heredity and proofs to support it would 
not have been needed. That the existence of this law was 
recognized, and that many of its principles were well un- 
derstood from an early period, finds ample illustration in 
the breeding operations conducted by the patriarch Ja:ob, 
in the monstrous forms that were bred for the amusement 
of the Romans when the decline of the empire was pend- 
ing, and in the care with which the Arabs kept their pedi- 
grees from a remote antiquity. 

So uniform is this principle of heredity in its action that 
it may be designated the compass which guides the breeder 
into the harbor of success. But before he can anchor there 
he must give attention to certain principles, a close adher- 
ence to which is absolutely essential to higher attainment 
in results. He must, for instance, breed to a standard of 
excellence; he must set a proper value on improved blood; 
and he must understand the art of selection and the princi- 
ples of good management generally. Without a standard 
of excellence in his mind, that is, w'ithout an ideal type, 
the breeder does not himself know what he is seeking. 



FAKM AKIMALS. 51 

Without dominant or stable characters, in at least one par- 
ent, no stability in transmission can be looked for, and 
without purity of breeding for generations dominant char- 
acters cannot be secured. Hence the great importance of 
purity of blood in effecting improvement in domestic ani- 
mals. Since some inferior anim'als will occasionally ap- 
pear, even where the breeding is the most skilful, the 
necessity will always exist for the exercise of a most rigor- 
ous selection on the part of every breeder who is to stand 
on the upland of success. When aided by judicious selec- 
tion, the law that like produces like enables us to effect 
improvement until a certain standard of excellence is 
reached, to maintain improvement when it has been 
secured, and to mould new types and form new breeds. 

By the law or principle of variation is meant the ten- 
dency sometimes found in animals to produce characters 
in the progeny which differ from those of the parental 
type. These changes relate to both form and function; 
in time they may become modificaiions of the systems of 
animals. They may be classed as gradual, or general a^nd 
ordinary; and as sudden, or spontaneous and extraordinary. 
General variation is that tendency to change from the 
original type which characterizes in a greater or a less de- 
gree all the individuals of a breed. Illustrations of the 
principle of general variation may be found, Jirst, in the 
tendency of grain to deteriorate which has fallen upon an 
unkindly soil ; and second, in the quick deterioration of 
the heavy breeds of sheep when confined to unproductive 
and rugged pastures. Chief among the numerous causes 
leading to general variation are changed conditions of life 
in animals, as climate, food, habit, and environment. Some- 
times these influences act independently and sometimes in 
conjunction. The principle of spontaneous variation may 
be defined as that tendency sometimes found in animals to 
produce progeny more or less unlike either of the parents 
or the ancestry of these. Illustrations of the operation of 
this principle may be found in the occasional production of 
progeny very unlike the parents or the ancestry in color, 
form, and other characteristics, and in the existence of horn- 
less breeds of cattle. 



53 AGRICULTURE. 

By atavism is meant that innate. tendency in animals to 
revert to the original type. It differs from the principle 
that like produces like in the reproduction of resemblances 
to an ancestry more or less remote rather than to the par- 
ents, and differs from spontaneous variation in produc- 
ing resemblances to an ancestry more remote than the im- 
mediate parents, whereas the latter produces characters 
unlike those of the ancestry, whether near or remote. Il- 
lustrations of atavic transmission are found in the occa- 
sional apearance of scars or horns in the polled breeds of 
cattle bred pure for many successive generations, and in 
the occasional appearance of tan-colored spots on the ears 
and face of the American merino. 

It is evident, therefore, that an intimate knowledge of 
the principles which govern breeding is highly important 
to those engaged in the production of live-stock. Hence 
they should study these with the utmost care and should em- 
body them in their practice to the greatest possible extent. 



VETEKINARY SCIENCE. 53 



III. VETERINARY SCIENCE. 

COMMON DISEASES OF FARM ANIMALS. 

By W. G. Clark. M.D.C, Marinette. Wis. 

I. HORSES. 

The common method of administering medicine to the horse 
is in the form of a drench. In drenching a horse the bottle 
should be clean, strong, and smooth. The head should be 
elevated just enough to prevent the horse from throwing the 
liquid from the mouth. If the animal refuses to swallow, tickle 
the roof of the mouth with the finger or the neck of the bottle. 
Do not rub, pinch, or pound the throat, nor draw the tongue 
out. These in no way aid the horse to swallow and often do 
harm. If coughing occurs or by any mishap the bottle is 
crushed in the mouth, lower the head at once. Do not attempt 
to pour medicine through the nose; it is liable to strangle the 
animal. 

Irritating substances, as turpentine, should be given in bland 
fluids such as oil or milk. 

Warm-water injections are of great value in treating many 
bowel troubles. A very good injection pipe may be made with 
about 30 inches of inch rubber hose and an ordinary tin funnel. 
Oil the hose and insert it in the rectum from 12 to 18 inches, and 
elevate the funnel above the back and pour in the water. The 
force of gravitation will carry it into the bowels. 

Soap and water, or salt and water, may be injected in this 
manner m quantitities of a gallon or more every hour. 

Spasmodic Colic. 

Causes. — Error in diet is the most prolific cause, as improper 
food in improper quantities at irregular intervals ; large 
draughts of cold water when warm ; eating when exhausted ; 
intestinal parasites; or foreign bodies in the bowels. 

Symptoms. — The horse manifests uneasiness, moves forward 
and back in the stall, looks toward the flank, switches the tail, 
paws, lies down and rolls; after a little the spasm will subside 
and the animal become quiet. Soon the spasm returns with 



54 AGRICULTURE. 

increased severity. As the disease progresses, the animal 
will become more violent and the intervals between the 
spasms shorter. 

Treatment. — Always urgent, as it often runs a rapid 
course, terminating fatally in a few hours. 

Give as a drench laudanum i oz., baking-soda one table- 
spoonful, sweet spts. nitre i oz., water one half-pint. This 
may be repeated in half an hour if not relieved. Always 
give injections of soap and warm water. Blanket the ani- 
mal and rub the abdomen briskly. If inclined to hang on, 
apply a paste of mustard to the abdomen and give raw lin- 
seed oil I pt., chloral hydrate 4 dr., dissolved in warm 
water. 

Flatulent Colic. 

The causes and symptoms are similar to those of spas- 
modic colic. 

The pain is not so severe at the outset and gradually in- 
creases in severity as the bowels become distended by gas. 
No intervals of ease as in spasmodic colic. The abdomen 
becomes rapidly distended and the animal dies from suffo- 
cation or rupture of the bowels unless soon relieved. 

Treatment. — Usually necessary to puncture with a tro- 
car and canula, which requires a knowledge of the anat- 
omy of the parts. Internally give hyposulfite of soda 2 oz., 
fl. ex. ginger 4 dr., spts. turpentine 4 dr., water i pint. 
Repeat in half an hour if necessary. Give injection of soap 
and warm water at short intervals. 

Pneumonia — ^Lung P'ever. 

The most common cause is exposure to a cold draught 
when tired and sweaty. 

Symptoms. — It is usually ushered in with a chill, fol- 
lowed by fever. The ears and legs are cold, pulse-rate in- 
creased, labored breathing, elbows turned out, increased 
working of the ribs, the animal persistently stands, appe- 
tite usually lost. 

Treatment. — Place in a comfortable well-ventilated box- 
stall. Blanket warmly, rub the legs and apply bandages. 



YETEKiJNARY SCIENCE. 55 

During the chill give large doses of stimulants, as whisky, 
alcohol, ginger, etc., at short intervals. 

[f the breathing is not relieved in a few hours, apply mus- 
tard over the ribs, just back of the shoulder-blades. 

Give nourishing, easily digested food. Keep the animal 
perfectly quiet. Give ^-oz. doses of nitrate of potash in the 
drinking-water three times daily. After the chill is relieved 
keep a pail of fresh water before the animal at all times. 

Azotiiria — Black- water. 

This disease is quite common among farm horses, 
and is due solely to overfeeding on nitrogenous foods and 
lack of exercise, followed by the accumulation in the sys- 
tem of waste matters. 

Symptoms. — The animal is taken from the barn after a 
few days' rest on full rations, apparently as well as usual. 
After driving from half a mile to six or eight miles the 
horse will begin to lag and sweat profusely. Shortly will 
begin to go lame, usually in one hind limb. If urged on, 
will soon lose the use of the limbs and fall to the 
ground, unable to rise. The urine if piassed will 
be dark and coffee-colored. This is a diagnos- 
tic symptom. The muscles over the hips become hard 
and swollen, and the animal will struggle convulsively and 
attempt to rise. 

Treatment. — Unhitch the animal as soon as the first symp- 
toms are noticed and take the horse to the nearest barn. Fold 
a woolen blanket and wring out of hot water and place over the 
hips, covering with a dry blanket. Repeat as soon as it becomes 
cool, and continue this until the more acute symptoms are re- 
lieved. Internally give laudanum i oz., raw linseed oil one pint, 
and repeat the laudanum in an hour if the pain is not relieved. 
If possible, the urine should be drawn with a catheter, as it is 
rarely passed when the animal is down. Give injections of soapy 
warm water at /requent intervals. 

Distemper — Strangles. 

This is a contagious disease due to a specific virus that very 
few horses escape. It usually runs a benign course and termi- 
nates favorably. 



56 AGRICULTURE. 

Treatment. —It is not of much use to attempt to check the 
course of the disease; in all cases proper shelter and nursing are 
most important. 

Give laxative sloppy food and apply warm poultices to the 
throat, to hasten suppuration. In no case give purging or de- 
pressing medicines. In fact, the whole treatment consists in 
producing and favoring the discharge of the abscess. As soon 
as fluctuation can be detected the abscess should be opened. 
When the disease assumes the malignant form or is complicated, 
apply to a competent veterinarian. 

Sprains. 

Treatment. — Rest in a quiet well-bedded stall. If the injury 
is below the knee or hock and the weather is warm, bathe the 
part three times daily for an hour at a time with cold water anc*. 
rub dry. 

If above the knee or hock, or the weather is cold, use hot water. 

After bathing apply a mild stimulant, as spirits of camphor, 
arnica, etc. 

If the lameness persists after the active inflammation is re- 
duced use the following liniment: aqua ammonia and spirits 
turpentine, 4 oz. ; of each linseed oil 8 oz. ; mix and apply twice 
daily with friction. 

Punctured Wounds of the Foot. 

In all cases the horn around the seat of the injury should 
be thinned down and a free opening made for the escape of 
the products of suppuration. Cauterize the wound with 95 
per cent carbolic acid and apply a poultice. Change twice 
daily and dress the wound with the following lotion: Zinc 
sulph. I oz., sugar lead i oz., carbolic acid 4 dr., water i pint. 
Thrush. 

The most common cause of thrush is the filthy condition of 
the stable in which the horse is kept. Muddy yards and roads, 
also hard work on rough, stony roads may excite this disease. 

Symptoms. — Increased secretion in the cleft of the frog and 
an offensive odor. After a time considerable discharge takes 
place and there is rapid destruction of the tissue of the frog. 

Treatment. — Remove the cause. Cut away all diseased tissue 
and cleanse the foot thoroughly. Take white vitriol i oz., and 
water 6 ozs. Saturate pledgets of tow or cotton with the solu- 
tion and crowd into the cleft and each side of the frog. Dres^t 
once daily until the discharge ceases. 



VETERINARY SCIENCE. 57 

Cuts from Barb-wire, etc. 

When bleeding to any extent follows a wound, this must first 
be checked. 

A moderately tight bandage with oakum, tow, or cobwebs will 
usually stop the bleeding in a short time. If the blood is bright 
red and flows in jets, apply a compress between the wound and 
the heart. 

If it is dark and the flow regular, apply pressure between the 
wound and the extremity. Cleanse the wound thoroughly with 
warm water and a soft sponge. Then dress with a 3 per cent 
solution of carbolic acid and apply a bandage so as to bring the 
edges together. If proud flesh appears, treat it with burnt alum, 

II. COWS. 

Milk Fever. 

Symptoms. — Dulness, uneasy movements of the hind 
limbs, head and horns hot; the animal soon becomes weak 
and unable to rise, head laid back on the flank or dashed to 
the ground, bowels constipated, sensation usually lost. 

Treatment. — Air treatment properly administered under 
antiseptic conditions has practically removed the danger of this 
disease. The necessary apparatus, which costs $2 to $3, can be 
purchased of veterinary instrument dealers or dairy-supply 
houses. Directions for use accompany the apparatus. 

Prevention. — Do not milk the udder dry at any time for the 
first few days after calving, withdrawing a portion of the milk 
at intervals of 4 to 5 hours to relieve distention of the udder. 
Give a spare diet for a week before and after calving. If con- 
stipated after delivery, give a purgative dose of salts. 
Garget. 

Causes. — Irregularities of diet, overfeeding on stimulat- 
ing food, exposure to cold, external injuries, as blows, etc. 

Symptoms. — Seldom attacks the whole udder. Swelling, 
heat, pain, and redness of the inflamed portion. The milk 
is curdled, whey-like, and mixed with blood. In severe 
cases there is much constitutional disturbance. 

Treatment. — Endeavor to discover the cause and remove 
it. The food should be devoid of milk-producing constitu- 
ents. Draw the milk frequently, using a milking-tube if 



58 AGRICULTURE. 

necessary. If the weather is warm, bathe the udder for an hour 
or more with hot water. 

Take fluid extract belladonna i oz. , glycerin 2 oz.; mix and 
apply three times daily with mild friction. Give two teaspoon- 
fuls fluid extract belladonna three times daily. If constipated, 
give Epsom salts i lb., ginger i oz., water i qt. 

Abortion. 

The cow may abort from any cause profoundly disturbing 
the nervous system, inflammation of the internal organs, 
diarrhoea, acute indigestion, blows on the abdomen, expos- 
ure to cold storms, drinking ice-water, feeding on ergotized 
grains and grasses, and infection from abortion discharges 
of other animals. 

Symptoms. — If it occurs within the first two months it is 
not apt to be noticed. During the latter part of gestation 
abortion resembles normal delivery, except that more effort 
and straining are present. 

Treatment. — The most important object in an impending 
abortion is to recognize it as soon as possible and apply 
preventive measures. Place in a quiet dark stall and check 
straining by sedatives. Laudanum i oz. ; repeat in two 
hours if necessary; or fl. ex. black haw. in same doses. 

After an abortion burn the foetus and afterbirth and all 
Zitter that is soiled, or bury deeply and cover with quick- 
lime. 

Flood the womb with a 2% solution of carbolic acid and 
wash the external organs once daily with a s% solution. 
Separate from the herd for 30 days. 

In epizootic abortion material benefit has in many cases 
been derived from phosphate of lime. Small doses (^ dram) 
mav be given daily in the food. 

Hoven or Bloat. 

Causes. — Overeating, choking, frosted roots, and fermen- 
tation of the food. 

Treatment. — In urgent cases tap on the left side at a 
point equidistant from the point of the hip, the last rib and 
the processes of the lumbar vertebrae, pointing the trocar 



VETERINARY SCIENCE. 59 

or knife downward, inward, and forward. If slight give 
spts. turpentine i oz., raw linseed oil ^ pt., and place a gag 
in the mouth. 

When relieved give a purgative and keep on a light diet 
for a few days. 

Diarrhoea in Calves. 

Always d*ie to indigestion and caused usually by over- 
feeding or improper food. 

Prevention. — Feed at least three times daily. The milk 
should be sweet and fed at a temperature of 90° to 100° F. 
The pails used in feeding should be kept sweet and clean. 

Treatment. — Cut down the ration, scald the milk or add 
lime-water in the proportion of i to 5. If the discharges 
are bright yellow give castor oil i to 2 tablespoonfuls. If 
there is great weakness give small doses of stimulants 
(ginger, brandy, whisky). 

Choking. 

Common among cattle when fed on roots, etc. To pre- 
vent tie the head so that it cannot be thrown up, or withhold 
dangerous foods. 

Symptoms. — Head extended, bloating, labored breathing, 
continuous coughing. If in the throat there is great distress 
and the animal may die quickly. If lower the symptoms 
are not as acute. 

Treatment. — If in the throat remove with the hand. If 
below reach and the object can be located from the outside, 
give small drenches of linseed oil and manipulate from the 
outside. Take time. Do not apply too much force. Usu- 
ally best to work the object toward the throat. 

If unable to remove the object it must.be pushed down; 
this may be done with a piece of i-in. rubber-hose, 6 ft. in 
length, well oiled, and inserted in the gullet, and gently 
force the object down. 

Tuherculosis. 

Tuberculosis is an infectious disease characterized by the 
formation in the various organs of the body of tubercles or 



GO AGRICULTURE. 

nodules, and is due to a specific micro-organism, the bacillus 
ttiberculosis. 

Tuberculosis in animals is identical wit-h tuberculosis 
(consumption) in the human family, the ravages of which 
are far greater than those of any other disease. 

The death rate from consumption, which is but one of its 
many forms, is about one in seven. 

All domestic animals are more or less subject to the dis- 
ease. Dairy cattle, however, in consequence of their mode 
of life and the heavy drain on their system from excessive 
breeding and milking, are more predisposed to the disease 
than any other of the domestic animals. 

Cause. — The essential cause is the specific germ, the 
tubercle bacillus, without which the disease could not exist. 
Since the disease is found in the lungs in a large proportion 
of cases, it is evident that tuberculosis is usually contracted 
by inhaling the germs with the air. It may also be caused 
by the ingestion of infected meat and milk and by direct 
inoculation. 

The development of the disease is favored by anything 
that tends to impair the general health of the animal, as 
overcrowding in poorly ventilated stables, hereditary pre- 
disposition, in-and-in breeding, lack of exercise, errors in 
diet, etc. 

Symptoms. — The symptoms are very obscure, and in some 
cases where the disease is well advanced there is seemingly 
little alteration in the health of the animal. The most 
prominent symptoms are a short, husky cough, enlargement 
of the lymph glands around the throat, dulness, capricious 
appetite, staring coat, and emaciation. 

Persistent oestrum or heat, with barrenness, especially 
when there is a harsh, staring coat and general unthrifty 
condition, is suspicious. 

The Tuberculin Test. — Tuberculin is a glycerin ex- 
tract of the soluble products produced by the growth of the 
tubercle bacillus, concentrated, filtered, and sterilized. 
When properly prepared it contains no living germs and 
cannot produce tuberculosis. It was introduced to the 
medical profession by Dr. Koch as a cure for tuberculosis. 



VETERINARY SCIENCE. 61 

Although it has not found practical application as a curative 
agent, it furnishes us the best diagnostic agent for bovine 
tuberculosis yet known. 

A summary of statistics indicates that about 88 per cent 
of tuberculous animals show the reaction fever on inocula- 
tion, while go per cent that were declared free from disease 
on account of the absence of fever did not show on autopsy 
any signs of the disease. 

Prevention. — The stables should be light and well ven- 
tilated. Cattle should be kept from interchange of stalls 
or stanchions. Breed only from healthy animals. No con- 
sumptive person should be allowed to care for stock. 

Isolate all suspected animals. Such animals should be 
examined by a competent veterinarian, and if found to be 
tuberculous the whole herd should be tested. Tuberculous 
animals should be killed and the carcasses burned or buried 
deeply and covered with quicklime. Disinfection should 
be thorough. Remove and burn all litter. Burn sulphur 
in the closed stable. Wash or spray all woodwork with a 
solution of corrosive sublimate, one part, to one thousand 
parts of water. 

Corrosive sublimate is a deaaiy poison and should be 
used with care. Whitewash with freshly slaked lime. 

III. SHEEP. 
Scab. 

Due to parasitic mites which infest the skin. 

Symptoms. — Intense itching, small reddish pimples ap- 
pear, rupture, and discharge a watery fluid; scabs form, the 
wool falls out in patches. Large sores sometimes result 
from the incessant rubbing. The parasite may be seen with 
a low-power lens. 

Treatment. — Take one pound of tobacco to each five 
gallons of water and boil until the strength is exhausted 
from the leaves. Strain and add one pound of sulphur to 
each five gallons. Allow each sheep to remain in the bath 
for five minutes, working the solution into all parts of the 
skin and breaking up the scabs. Place on a slooping rack 
and press the liquid out of the fleece, allowing it to run back 
into the trough. The same dip may be used for ticks. 



62 AGRICULTURE. 

Foot-Rot. 

Separate the sound animals from the diseased ones and 
from contaminated pastures and buildings. Carefully 
/'emove all diseased horn and foreign bodies and walk 
the sheep through a trough containing one pound of blue 
vitriol to three gallons of water. Place the infected flock 
on a dry upland pasture, if possible. 

Grub in the Head. 

This is the larvae of a small gadfly {vestnis ovis) which 
deposits its eggs within the nostrils. It stays there during 
the winter and spring, often proving harmless, but some- 
times causing much irritation, a white muco-purulent dis- 
charge, with dullness and stupor. 

Prevention. — Smear the nose with tar, or feed salt from 
two-inch augur-holes bored in a log, the surface of which is 
smeared with tar. 

Treatment. — Place in a warm building and introduce 
into the nostrils snuff, a solution of tobacco, or turpentine 
and olive-oil equal parts, to kill the larvae or cause their 
expulsion by sneezing; or place in a close room and subject 
to the fumes of burning sulphur for 15 min., as strong as 
can be endured, once daily for 3 or 4 days. 

IV. SWINE. 

Hog Cholera'. 

A specific contagious fever of swine. 

Symptoms. — The period of incubation varies from three 
to fifteen days. Shivering, nose hot and dry, later refuses 
food, lies under the litter, eyes sunken, gait unsteady. 
Heat and soreness of the skin, with tenderness, red patches 
and black spots; labored breathing; hard, dry cough; sore- 
ness of the belly; costiveness, followed by a foetid diar- 
rhoea. 

Prevention.— If it breaks out in a herd, kill and bury the 
diseased. Thoroughly disinfect everything they have come 
in contact with, using one-half ounce of corrosive sublimate 
in four gallons of water. Burn all straw and litter. Give 
the healthy ones clean, dry quarters. If possible, divide up 
the herd, placing a few in each pen. Allow free access to 



VETERINARY SCIENCE. 



63 



wood or animal charcoal and give in the drinking-water tec 
drops of carbolic acid for each one hundred and fifty pounds 
of live weight. Take the temperature daily, inserting a 
clinical thermometer in the rectum, and remove every 
animal showing a temperature of 103° or over. 

Kill and bury as soon as the symptoms of the disease are 
well manifested. 

Medicinal treatment of the disease is of but little avail. 
A good dietetical treatment, including a strict observance of 
sanitary principles, is of much more importance than the 
use of medicines. 

The pens should be kept scrupulously clean. The food 
given should be clean, of the best quality, and easily 
digested. The troughs used in feeding should be thor- 
oughly cleaned at least once daily. Keep away from in- 
fected herds, as the germs may be carried on the shoes or 
clothing. It is said that the virus will blow half a mile on 
the wind. It may also be spread by birds and dogs. 

Intestinal Worms. 

This is one of the most common troubles of swine. 

Symptoms. — A cough is usually the first symptom noticed; 
animals have a voracious appetite, yet lose flesh and exhibit 
general signs of ill health. If the faeces are examined the 
worms or their eggs can usually be found. 

Treatment. — Give one teaspoonful of spirits of turpentine 
for each one hundred and fifty pounds of live weight once 
daily in milk or oil. Place common salt where they can have 
free access to it. Give nutritious, easily digested food. 

VETERINARY REMEDIES AND DOSES. 

By W. G. Clark, M.D.C, Marinette, Wis. 
Graduation of Doses. 



Horse. 


Ox. 


Dose. 


3 years. 
2 

I " 
6 months, 
,-6 •' 


2 years. 

q months. 

3-6 •* 
X--3 " 


1 part. 

2/3 " 

'/A " 

1/16— 1/32 part. 



G4 AGRICULTURE. 

When not specified, the doses given apply to a full-grown 
horse of medium size. Dose for the ox, from i^ to 2 parts; 
sheep, ^ to ^ part. Animals of a nervous temperament are 
usually more susceptible to the action of drugs. 

No agent should be given until sufficiently diluted to 
prevent irritation of the mouth, and irritants that will not 
mix with water (turpentine, etc.) should be given in Unseed 
oil, milk, or eggs, after being thoroughly mixed. 

Raw^ Linseed Oil. — Dose : Horse, one half-pint to one 
quart. Laxative in small doses, purgative in large. Not 
so active as castor oil. A valuable laxative in young and 
delicate animals. For calves and lambs it is more gentle 
and safer than salts. In adults it is the best laxative to 
use where there is an irritable condition of the bowels, and 
in all febrile diseases where a laxative is needed. In im- 
paction of the bowels a pint may be given two or three 
times daily until relieved, supplemented by warm-water 
injections every two hours. Valuable in cases of choking 
on account of its lubricating qualities. 

Castor Oil. — Causes more griping and nausea than lin- 
seed oil and is more certain in its action. Used chiefly as a 
laxative for calves, foals, sheep, swine, and dogs. 

Useful in diarrhoea of calves and other young animals 
when the discharges are bright yellow and irritating. 
Dose for a calf, from i to 4 tablespoonfuls. 

Epsom Salts. — For cattle this is the purgative in most 
frequent and general use. Adult cattle take from i lb. to i^ 
lbs. In small doses in febrile diseases it lowers the tem- 
perature, improves the appetite, and helps to maintain a 
healthy and regular action of the bowels. Epsom salts is 
one of the best antidotes for lead poisoning. When used 
as a purgative, give from i to 2 oz. ginger with the salts. 

Oil OF Turpentine (Spts. Turpentine). — Dose: Horse, 
i to I oz. Very irritating to the mucous membrane, and when 
used internally should be given in oil or some bland fluid. 
Stimulant and anti-spasmodic. One of the most useful 
remedies in flatulent colic in the horse, and hoven or bloat 
in the ox. Also used to kill and expel intestinal worms. 
When used for this purpose, it is given after fasting in 



VETERINARY SCIENCE. 65 

large doses, i| to 2 oz. for the horse, followed in 12 hours 
by a purgative. 

Applied externally it is an irritant and is used in many 
liniments. The following liniment may be used where a 
mild counter-irritant is desired : Oil of turpentine and aqua 
ammonia, of each 4 oz., linseed oil 8 oz. Mix. This lini- 
ment is used chiefly for rheumatic swellings, sprains, and 
bruises after the active pain is subdued by fomentations, 
and for sore throats, as seen in distemper. 

Alcohol. — Dose : Horse, ^ oz. well diluted, whisky 
or brandy 2 to 4 oz. Alcohol is a narcotic poison. It first 
stimulates, then deranges, and ultimately depresses the 
functions of the brain and spinal cord. It kills, as a rule, by 
paralysis of respiration. Medicinally it is a very valuable, 
diffusible stimulant, anti-spasmodic heart tonic and anti- 
septic. Moderate doses increase the gastric secretions and 
aid digestion, but large doses destroy pepsin, arrest secre- 
tion, and interfere with absorption. There is probably no 
drug more extensively used than alcohol. It is useful in 
indigestion, spasmodic colic, cases of poisoning by aconite 
or tobacco. It is valuable in influenza and debilitating dis- 
eases. In blood-poisoning whisky combined with quinine 
is one of the most effective agents we have in controlling 
the temperature and keeping up the strength of the animal. 

The following is very useful in some cases of indigestion: 
Whisky i pt., quinine (sulfate) I oz., water i pt. Mix. 
Give 3 ounces at intervals of 3 to 4 or 6 hours, according to 
the nature of the case. 

Saltpeter (Nitrate of Potash). — Dose : Horse, i tea- 
spoonful to half an ounce. Large doses are irritant and 
cathartic and are liable to cause inflammation of the bow- 
els. Medicinal doses are discretive, alterative, antiseptic, 
febrifugal, and refrigerant. In febrile, inflammatory, and 
rheumatic complaints it allays fever, lowers excessive tem- 
perature, and removes by the kidneys both solid and fluid 
matters. Dissolved in water and applied externally it ab- 
stracts heat and is a useful refrigerant. Combined with 
sulfate of iron it makes an excellent tonic for horses 
recovering from debilitating diseases. 



66 AGRICULTURE. 

Saltpeter 2 02., dried sulf. iron 3 oz. Mix. Give 2 
teaspoonfuls with the feed 2 or 3 times daily. 

Alum. — Alum is an astringent. Chiefly used externally. 
Use a saturated solution in hot water. Applied to the 
shoulders of horses in the spring it toughens the skin and 
prevents collar-galls. Useful in healing harness galls. 
One of the best lotions to apply to barb-wire cuts and other 
wounds of a similar nature to prevent growth of proud 
fiesh. Sometimes dusted over the surface in the form 
of burnt alum ; not so effective as the saturated solution. 

Ginger. — Dose : Horse, ^ to i oz. Ginger stimulates 
the various mucous membranes with which it comes in 
contact. . Administered internally it increases the gas- 
tric secretions, facilitates digestion, and checks formation 
of gas. It is a useful adjunct to many medicines and is 
given with tonics and stimulants. Combined with purga- 
tives it diminishes their liability to nauseate and gripe, and 
also hastens their effect. It is used in all domesticated ani 
mals to fulfil those purposes, and is especially adapted to 
cattle and sheep. 

Carbolic Acid. — One of the best and cheapest disinfec- 
tants known. For dressing fresh wounds it may be used 
in from 2 per cent to 5 per cent watery solution. In oil i 
part to 15. Inhalation of the vapor with steam is of great 
service in malignant sore throat and abscesses following 
strangles. Carbolic acid is a narcotic irritant poison, and 
considerable care must be exercised in its use, as it is liable 
to become absorbed and produce poisonous effects if ap- 
plied over a large surface in a strong solution. It has been 
highly recommended in the treatment of hog cholera. It 
may be given to hogs in doses of from i to 5 drops well 
diluted. 

Pine Tar. — Not much employed internally. It is a good 
dressing in thrush and canker of the horse's foot. It is also 
of special service in foot-rot in sheep. It acts as^a stimulant 
and deodorizer to foul-smelling wounds and prevents the 
attacks of flies. 

Lime Water. — Lime water is prepared by slaking a small 
quantity of freshly burned lime with a large quantity of 



VETERINARY SCIENCE. 67 

water, allowing the undissolved matter to settle and pour- 
ing off the clear solution. This should be kept in tightly 
corked bottles. Lime water is an alkali and is used in in- 
digestion, bloat, and diarrhoea, especially among calves. 
Given with the milk in the proportion of 1:5. Scalds and 
burns may be treated with carron oil, which is composed of 
lime water and linseed oil, equal parts. Fresh lime in 
powder and solution is used in cleansing and disinfecting 
stables. For this purpose a little carbolic acid may be 
added to the solution. 

Sulfur. — ^In large doses it is an active irritant poison. In 
medicinal doses it is a laxative, alterative, and stimulates 
secretion. Care should be taken to prevent the animal 
from taking cold when given sulfur. It opens the pores of 
the skin and stimulates perspiration. Chiefly used in treat- 
ing rheumatism and chronic skin diseases. Dose : Horse, 
i oz. to 2 oz. 

SUPPRESSION OF HOG CHOLERA AND SWINE 
PLAGUE. (Craig.) 

Causes. — Hog cholera and swine plague are caused by 
different bacteria, but they are equally dependei^t for the 
success of their attacks on the unhealthiness of the hogs, 
due in most instances to unwholesome food and filthy sur- 
roundings. The causes are so similar and the symptoms 
are so much alike and often complicated that it will be best 
to consider the diseases together in what follows. The 
germs that cause them are easily spread over large terri- 
tories by being carried by cars, wagons, or the shoes of per- 
sons that have been among infected hogs. Most frequently 
the origin of the outbreak maybe traced to the importation 
of hogs from diseased districts or to spread from such 
centers by running streams. 

Symptoms. — The first symptoms usually shown in attacks 
of these diseases are those that indicate fever — a rise in 
temperature, thirst, loss of appetite, and redness of the skin 
on the lower part of the neck and inner side of the thigh. 
Usually a hog so diseased begins to cough when started 



68 AGRICULTURE. 

from its bed. A constipated condition of the bowels 
changes to diarrhoea as the disease progresses, and this 
results in a rapid loss of flesh. Dissection generally i^hovvs 
the lungs to be inflamed, the spleen enlarged, or the 
lining of the large intestine covered with numerous ulcers. 

Prevention. — To protect hogs from attacks of these dis- 
eases it is necessary to observe the following recommen- 
dations: The hogs should pot be watered at running 
streams, as the germs are readily carried by these. Per- 
sons coming from infected districts should not be allowed 
to go near your hogs, and you should not go among your 
neighbors' hogs if they are sick. When other hogs are 
brought to your farm, assume that they are infected and 
keep them away from yours at least for six weeks. Observe 
as much cleanliness as possible in regard to food and sur- 
roundings. Feed a mixture of foods in a sloppy or soft con- 
dition, and withhold heavy grain feeding. Disinfect the 
quarters of the hogs by sprinkling liberally with a five per 
cent solution (by volume) of carbolic acid, and use a two per 
cent solution of the same for washing the hogs. 

Treatment. — The hogs showing any of the symptoms 
described should at once be separated from the others, and 
put in cheaply constructed quarters, so that the latter may 
be burned when no longer required. The well hogs should 
be removed to disinfected quarters. Give all the hogs the 
following mixture, recommended by Dr. Salmon, Chief of 
the Bureau of Animal Industry: 

Wood charcoal i lb. 

Sulfur I " 

Salt ; 2 lbs. 

Baking-soda 2 " 

Glauber's salts i lb. 

Sodium hyposulfite 2 lbs. 

Antimony sulfid i lb. 

This should be given in soft food in the proportion of a 
teaspoonful daily to a two hundred pound hog. Remove 
all refuse from the pens in which the infected hogs were 
kept, and dig out the old soil, put in fresh earth, disinfect 



VETERINARY SCIENCE. 69 

with carbolic acid solution, and allow the pens to remain 
vacant for at least six months. The same feeder should 
not attend the well and the sick hogs unless his shoes are 
changed after each visit to the sick hogs. The bodies of 
the dead hogs should be thrown into a rubbish heap and 
burned ; but if this cannot be easily carried out, a long, deep 
trench should be dug, and when the carcases are thrown 
into it they should be covered with a layer of quicklime and 
at least six inches of earth. When the disease has spent 
itself or has been effaced, the entire mass in the trench 
should be covered with six inches of quicklime and at least 
six feet of earth. The place selected for the burial of 
the hogs should not drain towards a stream, and it would 
be better to fence it. The dead hogs should never be drawn 
over the ground, and the wagon used should be washed 
with a disinfectant. 

During the last few years the se7'um treatment of swine 
plague and hog cholera has been introduced experimentally 
by the Bureau of Animal Industry of the U. S. Dept. of 
Agriculture. Although the results so far obtained are very 
promising, further studies are required before the efficacy 
and practicability of the method can be considered proved. 
Farmers whose hogs are attacked by hog cholera, or who 
fear such an attack, should at once communicate with the 
Bureau or with the State authorities and ascertain what 
assistance can be had. 

DIRECTIONS FOR MAKING TUBERCULIN TESTS. 

Animals must be kept in as nearly a normal condition as 
possible during the test. Before injection take four tempera- 
tures, about two hours apart. Inject in the evening at about nine 
o'clock; begin taking temperatures eight to ten hours after the in- 
jection and continue until at least five temperatures, two hours 
apart, have been taken. In case an animal shows an abnormally 
high temperature at the end of this period continue taking 
temperatures until a decided drop toward the normal is noted. 

A rise of 2 to 2.5 deg. F. above the average normal body tem- 
perature, maintained for several hours, is considered a positive 



70 AGRICULTURE. 

reaction, especially when the maximum temperature goes above 
104 deg. F. 

Precaution. — Water before beginning the temperature readings 
the first day of the test; on the second day give a small quantity 
(a pailful or so) in barn, if necessary, and turn stock out in the 
afternoon for further watering. Large quantities of cold water 
reduce the temperature, and if animals are watered at the usual 
time in the morning on the day following the injection, marked 
errors may be caused in the test. (Wis. Exp. Station.) 

LIST OF DISINFECTANTS. 

(Sternberg.) 

The most useful agents for the destruction of spore- 
containing infectious material are: 

1. Fire. — Complete destruction by burning. 

2. Steam under Pressure, 105° C. (221° F.,) for ten minutes. 

3. Boiling in Water for half an hour. 

4. Chlorid of Lifne (should contain at least 25 per cent of 
available chlorin). — A 4 per cent solution. 

5. Mercuric Chlorid. — A solution of 1-500. 

For the destruction of infectious material which owes 
its infecting power to the presence of micro-organisms not 
containing spores, any of the following agents are recom- 
mended: 

1. Fire. — Complete destruction by burning. 

2. Boiling in water for ten minutes. 

3. Dry Heat, no" C. (230" F.), for two hours. 

4. Chlorid of Lime. — A 2 per cent solution. 

5. Solution of Chlorinated Soda (should contain at least 
3 per cent of available chlorin).— A 10 per cent solution. 

6. Mercuric Chlorid.— K solution of 1-2000. 

7. Carbolic Acid. — A 5 per cent solution. 

8. Sulfate of Copper. — A 5 per cent solution. 

9. Chlorid of Zinc. — A 10 per cent solution. 

10. Sulfur Dioxid (this will require the combustion of 
between 3 and 4 lbs. of sulfur for every 1000 cubic feet 
of air-space). — Exposure for twelve hours to an atmos- 
phere containing at least 4 volumes per cent of this gas, in 
presence of moisture. 



VETERINARY SCIENCE. 71 

RULES FOR DISINFECTION OF STABLES. 

lu Case of Appearance of Contagious Diseases. 

(Trumbower.) 

1. Have all loose litter, hay, and rubbish removed and 
burned. 

2. Have all manure removed to land where cattle have no 
access. 

3. Have all feed-troughs, hay-racks and all woodwork 
thoroughly cleaned by washing with hot water in which two 
ounces of carbolic acid to each gallon of water are dissolved. 

4. Thoroughly whitewash the whole of the interior of the 
building with a whitewash containing one pound of chloride 
of lime to each four gallons of water. Enough freshly 
burned quicklime should be added to make the wash show 
where applied. Especially should this be applied to the 
sides and front of the stalls, feed-troughs and hay-racks 
(inside and outside). 

5. All rotten woodwork to be removed and burned, and 
replaced with new. 

6. All buckets, forks, shovels, brooms, and other objects 
used about the stable to be washed and covered with the 
same solution. 

7. All drains to be thoroughly cleaned and disinfected 
with a solution of chloride of lime, one pound to four gal- 
lons of water. 

8. In cases of glanders, all harness, poles, and shafts of 
wagons, neck-yokes and pole-straps should be thoroughly 
washed with hot water and soap, and afterwards oiled with 
carbolized oil (one part of carbolic acid to ten of oil). Before 
applying the oil, harness should be hung up in the open air 
for one week. 

REGULATIONS FOR THE GOVERN3IEXT OF 
Dairies and Dairy Farms in the District of Colum- 
bia. 

Section i. — No building shall be used for stabling cows 
for dairy purposes which is not well lighted, ventilated, 
drained, and constructed. 



72 AGRICULTURE. 

Sec. 2. — No building shall be used for stabling cows for 
dairy purposes which is not provided with a suitable floor, 
laid with proper grades and channels to immediately carry 
off all drainage; and if a public sewer abuts the premises 
upon which such building is situated, they shall be con- 
nected therewith whenever, in the opinion of the health 
officer, such sewer connection is necessary. 

Sec. 3. — No building shall be used foi stabling cows for 
dairy purposes which is not provided with good and suffi- 
cient feeding-troughs or boxes, and with a covered water- 
tight receptacle, outside of the building, for the reception 
of dung and other refuse. 

Sec. 4. — No water closet, privy, cesspool, urinal, in- 
habited room, or workshop shall be located within any 
building or shed used for stabling cows for dairy purposes, 
or for the storage of milk or cream, nor shall any fowl, 
hog, horse, sheep, or goat be kept in any room used ioi 
such purposes. 

Sec. 5. — The space in buildings or sheds used for stabling 
cows shall not be less than five hundred cubic feet for each 
cow, and the stalls therefor shall not be less than four feet 
in width. 

Sec. 6. — It shall be the duty of each person using any 
premises for keeping cows for dairy purposes to keep sucn 
premises thoroughly clean and in good repair and well 
painted or whitewashed at all times. 

, Sec. 7. — It shall be the duty of each person using any 
premises for keeping cows for dairy purposes to cause the 
building in which cows are kept to be thoroughly cleaned, 
and remove all dung from the premises so as to prevent its 
accumulation in great quantities. 

Sec. 8. — It shall be the duty of any person having charge 
or control of any premises upon which cows are kept to 
notify the health officer, in writing, of the existence of any 
contagious or infectious disease among such cows, within 
twenty-four hours of the discovery thereof, and to thor- 
oughly isolate any cow or cows affected or which may rea- 
sonablv be believed to be infected, and to exercise such 



VETERINARY SCIEKCE. 73 

other precautions as may be directed, in writing, by the 
health officer. 

Sec. 9. — Any person using any premises for keeping 
cows for dairy purposes shall provide and use a sufficient 
number of receptacles made of non-absorbent materials, 
for the reception, storage, and delivery of milk, and shall 
cause them at all times to be cleansed and purified, and 
shall cause all milk to be removed without delay from the 
rooms in which the cows are kept. 

Sec. 10. — Every person keeping cows for the production 
of milk for sale shall cause every such cow to be cleaned 
every day and to be properly fed and watered. 

Sec. II. — Every person using any premises for keeping 
cows shall cause the yard used in connection therewith to 
be provided with a proper receptacle for drinking water 
for such cows; none but fresh, clean water to be used in 
such receptacle. 

Sec. 12. — Any enclosure in which cows are kept shall be 
graded and drained so as to keep the surface reasonably 
dry and to prevent the accumulation of water therein, ex- 
cept as may be permitted for the purpose of supplying 
drinking water; no garbage, urine, fecal matter, ^r similar 
substances shall be placed or allowed to remain in such en- 
closure, and no open drain shall be allowed to run through it. 

Sec. 13. — These regulations shall apply to all premises 
upon which cow's milk is produced for sale. 

Sec. 14. — That any person violating any of these regula- 
tions shall, on conviction in the police court of said district, 
be punished by a fine of not less than, five nor more than 
ten dollars for each and every offense, to be collected as 
other fines and penalties are collected. 

(See also p. 272, Rules and Regulations to be observed in the 
care of cows and the handling of milk shipped to the City of 
New York.) 



74 



AGUICULTUEE. 



IV. FIET.D CROPS. 

QUANTITY OF SEED REQUIRED TO THE ACRE. 

(Waring.) 



Designation, ?-«■,'>' 

Wheat I J to 2 bu. 

Barley li to 2^ bu. 

Oats .2 to 4 bu. 

Rye I to 2 bu. 

Buckwheat | to ij bu. 

Millet I to li bu. 

Corn f to I bu. 

Beans i to 2 bu. 

Peas 2^ to 3^ bu. 

Hemp I to i^ bu. 

Flax i to 2 bu. 

Rice 2 to 2^ bu. 

When planted in rows or drills: 

Broom-corn i to i^ bu. 

Beans i^ to 2 bu. 

Peas li to 2 bu. 



Designation. C-nmy 

Broom-corn. ... i to i-J bu. 

Potatoes 5 to 10 bu. 

Timothy 12 to 24 qts. 

Mustard 8 to 20 qts. 

Herd grass 12 to 16 qts. 

Flat turnip 2 to 3 lbs. 

Red clover 10 to 16 lbs. 

White clover. ... 3 to 4 lbs. 

Blue grass 10 to 15 lbs. 

Orchard grass. .. 20 to 30 lbs. 

Carrots 4 to 5 lbs. 

Parsnips 6 to 8 lbs. 



Onions 4105 lbs. 

Carrots 2 to 2^ lbs. 

Parsnips 4 to 5 lbs, 

Beets 4 to 6 lbs 



SEED USED PER ACRE. (McKerrow.) 



Wheat 

Oats 

Barley. 

Kye 

Peas 

Buckwheat 

Beans 

Oats & peas, ^ Oats 
mixed for hay t Peas 

Flax 

Millet 

Corn 

Potatoes 



Drilled. 
Bus. 



Broad- 
cast, 
Bus. 



2l^ 



^ 



i^;to \\i 



Clover (red) 

Clover CAlsike) 

Clover (white) . . . 
Clover & \ 8 clover 
timothy \ ^timothy 

Timothy 

Orchard-grass 

Rape 

Turnips 

Carrots 

Beets 

Sugar Beets 



Drilled, 
Lbs. 



broad- 
cast. 
Lbs. 



FIELD CROPS. 



75 



SEED MIXTURES FOR HAY AND PERMANENT 
PASTURES 

In Pounds per acre. 



Names of Grasses. 


Flint. 


II. 

Law- 
son. 


III. 

For Good 
Medium 

Soils. 
De Laune 


IV. 

For Wet 

Soils. 
De Laun^ 


V. 

For 

Chalky 

Soils. 

De Laune 


VI. 
For 

Perma- 
nent 

Lawns. 
Flint. 




2 

6 

I 

2 


2 
4 


10 


4 




3 

3 






Sweet-scented vernal 








Meadow fescue 

Tall fescue 


2 
2 
2 

2 
2 


6 
3 

I 


I 


2 


2 
2 


Hiird fescue 

Sheep's fescue 

Redtop 


2 


4 
4 


2 
2 




3 
4 








Kentucky blue grass. 

.trtlian rye grass 

Perennial rye grass ., 


4 
4 
6 
3 

2 








6 
8 
.•^ 
2 
2 








3 
4 

3 
3 








?i 


3 

2 




Rougli meadow grass 
W^ood mi'adow grass 






3 
5 




I 

10 

2 

2 
I 

I 


I 
I 
I 
I 
14 
5 




Perenni il red clover. 
White (Dutch) clover 

Alsike 

Yellow oat grass. 


2 
5 


I 
I 

7 
2 

I 


2 

2- 
I 


Cock's-foot 

Crested dog's-tail ... 
Fiorin . 












2 
3 




Cat's-tail 
















40 


45 


41 


40 


38 


43 



For the Northwest the following mixture will, according 
to Shaw, be found suitable: 

Timothy 4 lbs., blue grass 3 lbs., redtop 2 lbs., orchard 
grass 2 lbs., meadow fescue i lb., tall oat grass i lb., 
meadow foxtail i lb., alsike clover 3 lbs., white clover 2 lbs., 
lucern (alfalfa) 2 lbs., yellow clover i lb., total 22 lbs. 

And for the Stales east of Michigan and for the provinces 
of Canada eastward of Lake Huron: 

Lucern (alfalfa) 5 lbs., orchard-grass 4 lbs., meadow 
fescue and alsike clover 3 lbs. each, tall oat grass, timothy, 
meadow foxtail, and white clover 2 lbs. each, yellow clover 
I lb.; total 24 lbs. 



76 



AGRICULTURE. 



The following mixtures of seeds are suggested for 
meadows and for pastures by the U. S. Department of 
Agriculture : 

A. Hay Mixtures. 



No. I. 

Pounds. 

Tall oat grass 70 

Red clover 30 

(Sow 35 to 40 lbs. per acre.) 



No. 2. 

Red top 30 

Orchard grass 40 

Meadow fescue 20 

Red clover 10 

(Sow 40 to 45 lbs. per acre.) 



No. 3. 

Pounds. 

Italian rye grass 20 

Orchard grass 25 

Red clover 10 

Tall oat grass 20 

Red top 25 

(Sow 35 to 40 lbs. per acre.) 

No. 4. 

Timothy 40 

Red top 40 

Tall oat grass 20 

(Sow 40 lbs. per acre.) 



Pasture Mixtures. 



No. I. 

Kentucky blue grass.... 25 

White clover 10 

Perennial rye 30 

Red fescue 10 

Red top 25 

(Sow 35 lbs. per acre.) 

No. 2. 

Canada blue grass 5 

Red clover 5 

Orchard grass 5 

Tall oat grass 5 

Perennial rye grass 20 

Red top 35 

(Sow 40 to 45 lbs. per acre.) 



No, 3. For wet pastures. 

Red top 35 

Alsike 20 

Creeping bent 15 

Perennial rye 30 

(Sow 40 lbs. per acre.) 



No. 4. For light sandy 
soils. 

Red fescue 50 

Red top 25 

Kentucky blue grass. . . 20 

White clover .. 5 

(Sow 35 to 40 lbs. per acre.) 



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80 



AGRICULTURE. 



THE WEIGHT AND AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF 
ORDINARY CROPS IN POUNDS PER ACRE. 

(Warington.) 





Weight of 
Crop. 




H 


1 


P 

en 


j3 
03 

I 


•0 

CO 


i 


■i 

c 
bid 


. 

X3 
Oh 

Tbl 

14.2 
6.9 
— 
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c 

'u 


'a 
U \ 

lbs. 

0.1 

2.4 

2.5 






At 
Har- 
vest. 


Dry. 


i 

(75 


Wheat : 
grain, 30 bu.. 
straw 


lbs. 

1.800 
3,158 


lbs. 

1,530 
2,653 


lbs. 

30 
142 

172 


lbs. 

33 
15 


lbs. 

2.7 
51 

7.8 


lbs. 

9-3 

19 5 

28.8 


lbs. 

6 
2.0 

2.6 


lbs. 
1 .0 

8.2 

9.2 


lbs. 

3-6 
3-5 

7-1 


lbs. 

0.6 

96.3 


Total crop.. 


4,958 


4,183 


96.9 


Barley : 
grain, 40 bu.. 
straw 


2,080 
2,447 


1,747 
2,080 


46 
III 


35 
13 


2.9 

3-2 

6.1 


9.8 
25-9 

35-7 


I.I 
3-9 

5-0 


1.2 

8.0 

9.2 


4.0 
2.9 

6.9 


16.0 

4-7 
20.7 


05 
3-6 

4.1 


II. 8 

56.8 


Total crop.. 


4.527 


3,827 


157 


48 


68.6 


Oats: 
grain, 45 bu.. 
straw 


i.Sqo 
2,835 


1,625 
2,353 


SI 

140 


38 
17 


3-2 

4.8 


9.1 

37-0 


0.8 

4.6 


1.8 
9.8 


3-6 

5-1 


13.0 
6.4 


6.1 


19.9 
65-4 


Total crop . . 


4,725 


3,978 


191 

22 

99 


55 

28 
15 


8.0 
1.8 


46.1 

6.5 
29.8 


5-4 
0.2 


:i.6 
0.5 


3.7 
3-4 


19.4 

10. 

8.0 


6.6 
0.2 


85.3 


Maize : 
grain, 30 bu.. 
stalks, etc.... 


1,680 
2,208 


1,500 
1,877 


o-S 


Total crop.. 


3,888 


3,377 


121 


43 




36.3 








18.0 






Meadow hay, 
ii^ tons 


3,360 


2,822 


203 


49 
102 


5-7 
9.4 


50.9 
83.4 


92 
51 


32.1 
90.1 


14.4 
28.2 

4.2 

5-7 


12.3 

24.9 

22.8 
6.3 


14.6 
9.8 

I.I 

4-3 


56.9 


Red clover hay, 
2 tons 


4,480 


3,763 


258 


7.0 


Beans : 

grain, 30 bu.. 
straw 


1,920 
2,240 


\mI 


58 
99 


77 
29 


4-4 
4-9 


24-3 
42.8 


0.6 

1-7 


2.9 

26.3 


0.4 
6.9 


Total crop . 


4,. 60 


3,461 


157 


106 


9-3 


67.1 


2.3 


29.2 

25-5 
48.5 

74.0 

19.7 
22.7 


9.9 

5-7 
3-8 

9-5 

6.8 

2.4 


29.1 

22.4 
10.7 

33-1 

1:1 


5-4 

10.9 
11.2 

22.1 

6.8 

8.3 


7-3 


Turnips : 
root, 17 tons, 
leaf 


38,080 
11,424 


3,126 
1,531 


218 
146 


63 
49 

192 


15.2 
5-7 

20.9 


108.6 
40.2 

148.8 


17.0 
7-5 

24.0 


2.6 






Total crop.. 


49,504 


4,657 


364 


7-7 


Swedes: 
root, 14 tons., 
leaf 


31,360 
4,704 


3,. 349 
706 


163 
75 


70 

28 


14.6 
3-2 


63.3 
16.4 


22.8 
9.2 


W 




Total crop.. 


36,064 


4,055 


238 


98 


17.8* 


79-7 


32.0 


4-4 


9.2 


21.7 


I5-I 


■■1 



* Calculated from a single analysis only. 



FIELD CHOPS. 



81 



THE WEIGHT AND AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF 
ORDINARY CROPS.— ConttHued. 





Weig 
Cr 

At 
Har- 
vest. 


htof 
op. 

Dry. 


<u 
u 


c 




1 


li 


4J 

a 


C 




6 


c3 

c75 


Mangolds: 
root, 22 tons., 
leaf .. . 


lbs. 

49,280 
18,233 


lbs. 

5,914 

1,654 


lbs. 

426 
254 


lbs. 
87 
51 


lbs. 

4.9 
9.1 


ilbS. 
222.8 

77-9 


lbs. 

69.4 

49-3 


lbs. 

159 
27.0 

42.9 


lbs. 

18.3 
24.2 

42.5 


lbs 

36.4 
16.5 

52-9 


lbs. 
42.5 
40.6 

83.1 


lbs. 

8.7 

9.2 






Total crop . . 


67.513 


7,568 


680 


138 


14.0 


300.7 


187.7 


17.9 


Potato : 
tubers, 6 tons. 


13,440 


3,360 


127 


47 


2.7 


76.5 

4.2 
8.8 


3-8 

0.8 
1.6 


3-4 

12.9 
73-1 


6.3 

3-4 
10.9 


21.5 

1-5 
9-3 


4-4 


2.6 


Beech: 
wood 




2,822 
2,975 


26 
166 


10 

39 




2.2 


leaf litter. ... 




53-9 


T'l produce. 




5,797 


192 


49 




13.0 


2.4 


86.0 


143 


10.8 




56.1 


Scotch pine: 
■wood 




2,884 
2,845 


15 
42 






2-3 

4-3 


0.2 
^•7 


9.0 
16.8 


1-5 
4-3 


I.O 

3-3 




0.5 


leaf litter 




5.8 








T'l produce. 




5,729 


57 

20 
121 


— - 




6.6 

3-6 

4-3 

7-9 


1.9 

0.4 

1-5 

1.9 


25.8 

8.2 
54-4 

62.6 


5-8 

1.8 
6.2 

8.0 


4-3 

1-3 
5-7 

7.0 


.... 


6.3 


Spruce fir: 
wood 




3,064 
2,683 


2.9 


leaf litter 


— - 


44-3 


T'l produce. 


5.747 


141 






47.2 



SOILING CROPS ADAPTED TO NORTHERN NEW 

ENGLAND STATES. (Lindsey.) 
(For 10 cows' entire soiling.) 



Kind. 


Seed per Acre. 


Rye 

Wheat 


2 bush 

20 lbs 

V^ bu. redtop... 
I peck timothy, 
lolbs. red clover 

3 bush, oats 

50 lbs. vetch ... 

ii^bu. Canada. 
i]4 bu. oats . . . 

I peck 

18 quarts 


Red clover. .. 

Grass and clo-j 
ver ) 


f 

Vetch and oats, -j 

Peas and oats.. < 

Barnyard millet.. 

Soja bean (me- 
dium green) — 






Hungarian 

Barley and peas ■< 


1 bush • 

i}4 bu. peas 

i]4 bu. barley.. 



Time of 
Seeding. 



Sept. 10-15 
rs-Aug. 
Sept. 



July 

i 

i 



April 20 

" 30 

" 20 

" 30 
May 10 



30 
July 15 

Aug. 5 



Area. 
}4 acre 



14 acre 



V^ acre 



! - 



ji^ acre 
1 acre 



Time of Cutting 



May 20- 
June 1- 
June 15- 



-May 30 
-June 15 
-June 25 



June 15— June 30 



June 25- 
July 10- 
June 25- 
July 10- 
J.uly 2s- 
Aug. 10- 

Aug. 25- 
Aug. 25- 
Sept 10- 
Sept. 20- 

Oct. I- 



-July 10 

-July 20 

-July 10 

-July 20 
-Aug. 10 
-Aug. 20 

-Sept. 15 
-Sept 10 
-Sept. 20 
-Sept. 30 

-Oct. 20 



82 



AGRICULTURE. 



TIME OP PLANTING AND FEEDING SOILING 
CROPS. (Phelps.) 



Kind of Fodder. 



Rye fodder 

Whratfodder 

Clover 

Grass (from grass-lands). 
Oats and peas 



Hungarian 

Clover rowen (from 3) 

Soja beans 

Cow-peas . ... 

Rowen grass (from grass- 
lands) 

Barley and peas 



Amount of 
Seed 
per Acre. 



2J to 3 bu. 

2J to 3 bu. 

20 lbs. 

2 bu. each 



li bushels 

I bushel 
I bushel 



2 bu. each 



Approxi 

mate Time 

of Seeding. 



Sept. I 
Sept. 5-10 
July 20-30 

April 10 
'* 20 

T " 30 
June I 

May 25 
June 5-10 



Aug, s-10 



Approximate 
Time of Feeding 



May 10-20 
May 20, June 5 
June 5-15 
June 15-25 
June 25, July 10 
July 10-20 

" 20. Aug. I 
Aug. I -10 

" 10-20 

** 20, Sept. 5 

Sept. 5-20 

" 20-30 

Oct. 1-30 



The dates given in the table apply to Central Connecticut and regions 
under approximately similar conditions. 

CROPS FOR PARTIAL SOILING FOR ILLINOIS 
DURING MIDSUaiMER. (Eraser.) 



Kinds of Fodder. 


Amount 
of Seed 
per Acre. 


Approx. 
Time of 
Seeding. 


Approx. Time 
of Feeding. 


1. Com, early, sweet, or dent. . . 

2. Corn, medium, dent 

3. Cow peas. . . 


6 qts. 
5 " 
I bu. 

I bu. each 

libs. 
4 " 
4 " 


May I 

" 15 

" IS 

" 15 

April 1 5 

May 1 

" I 

June I 

July I 


July I -Aug. I 

Aug. I -Sept. 30 

" I- " IS 

" I- " IS 

July i-July 15 

" 15-Aug. I 

" I- " I 

Aug. i-Sept. I 

Sept. i-Oct. I 


4. Soy beans 


5. Oats and Canada peas 

6. " " " " 

7. Rape (Dwarf Essex) 

8. ' ' second sowing 





REPLACING WINTER-KILLED CLOVER. 

The following brief article gives a list of forage plants 
that will be found suitable for furnishing green feed for 
cattle and other farm animals in regions where the clover 
has been winter-killed. It was originally published as a 
newspaper bulletin from the Wisconsin Experiment Station 
and is written with special reference to conditions in the 
Northwestern States. 

J/ow to get the Quickest Pasture. — A field of oats or barley- 
will furnish the quickest pasture it is possible to obtain, 
barley being a little earlier than oats. Sow oats or barley 



FIELD CROPS. 83 

as for a grain crop, and when the young plants are a few 
inches high, turn in the stock and treat the field as though 
it were a pasture. If the cattle do not graze ;he field 
evenly, run the mower over the patches where the growth 
is excessive. By keeping the growth short it will last 
much longer than if allowed to head out. It is recom- 
mended that, as an experiment, clover and timothy seed 
be sown with a part at least of the oats or barley, in the 
hope of securing a stand for next season. The farmer who 
:an pasture his oat or barley field and get a crop of clover 
started at the same time will be one year ahead. This rec- 
ommendation must be regarded as an experiment, but it 
has been successfully tried in a number of cases. 

Oats and Peas, — Let the farmer also put in a patch of oats 
ind peas. Sow a bushel and a half of peas per acre, cover- 
ing three or four inches deep on light soil, and one or two 
inches on heavy soil. After these are planted sow or drill 
the oats in the usual manner. Cut the green forage for the 
:attle, or cure for hay. 

Millet. — For winter hay sow millet or Hungarian grass 
from the loth to the 30th of June, using from a bushel to a 
bushel and a half of seed per acre. When the seed-heads 
are coming into blossom; cut and cure for hay. Millet or 
Hungarian grass will yield from one ton to two and a half 
tons of good quality hay per acre. Horses should not be 
Efiven over one feed of millet hay per day. 

Corn Fodder. — Any variety of corn will do for green or 
dry forage, the early kinds being the most suitable for 
early fall feed. Sweet corn is very satisfactory because the 
stalks are soft and palatable. Plant in hills or drills just thick 
enough to decrease the size of the ears to about half their 
normal size. Begin feeding as soon as the ears are glaz- 
ing, and continue with the dry forage throughout the win- 
ter. From three to six tons per acre of winter forage, suit- 
able for all kinds of farm stock, can be secured from a corn 
:rop grown on good land. (Henry.) 



84 



AGRICULTURE. 























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I 




M 




o o o 




^ 

-O.U.U S 


a> <u 0) o o o 

2 2 2t) >,>>>.'d 




rt-jH 


0; a)<uO^Hl-.^-.0 




pLi-Q 


O ni ai ►* 


> >>0(U(U1U0 






cSfcf^ <^ 


< <:<::o>»o 






\ 


'd 






60 bo 


oming 
heade 




1- 


.s.s 




y^"c 






2i§ 


o o 


O 7=i 




Before bl 
Before bl 
In bloom 

In milk 


In milk 

In milk 
Before bl 
Mature 
In silk 
When we 
In silk 
Mature 




Acre- 
age for 
Ten 
Cows. 


HnHM-+5 ^ 


He He 


h«h»h2h«,h» 


Daily 
Feed 

Co^w. 


OOvO-O P) 


N (NO<NOOiOv<N 






ro er> ^. -^ ^ t^ r^ ■* 


<u 














Days 
from 
Sow- 

vest. 


00. 


o 


o 


j^vO \0 N r^ 


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OOOOO OO 


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April 

April 
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• z 


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ii tH X I-. 



FIELD CROPS. 



85 



CYLINDRICAL SILOS. 

Approximate Capacity of Cylindrical Silos for Well- 
inatured Corn Silage, in Tons. (King.) 



¥ 








In 


side Diameter of Silo, Feet. 










10 
26 


12 

~8~ 


14 
51 


15 
59 


16 
67 


18 


20 


21 

115 


22 
127 


23 
138 


24 
151 


25 
163 


26 


20 


8,, 


105 


177 


21 


28 


40 


55 


63 


72 


91 


112 


123 


135 


148 


161 


175 


189 


22 


30 


43 


59 


67 


77 


97 


120 


132 


145 


158 


172 


187 


202 


23 


32 


46 


62 


72 


82 


103 


128 


141 


154 


169 


184 


199 


216 


24 


34 


49 


66 


76 


87 


1 10 


13s 


149 


164 


179 


195 


212 


229 


25 


3 b 


52 


70 


81 


90 


116 


143 


158 


173 


190 


206 


224 


242 


26 


38 


55 


74 


«5 


97 


123 


152 


168 


184 


201 


219 


237 


257 


27 


40 


58 


7H 


90 


lO.S 


130 


160 


177 


194 


212 


231 


251 


271 


28 


42 


61 


83 


95 


108 


137 


169 


186 


204 


223 


243 


264 


285 


29 


45 


64 


88 


100 


114 


144 


178 


196 


215 


235 


265 


278 


300 


30 


47 


08 


93 


105 


119 


151 


187 


206 


226 


247 


269 


292 


315 


31 


49 


70 


96 


no 


125 


158 


195 


215 


236 


258 


282 


305 


330 


32 


51 


73 


lOI 


115 


131 


166 


205 


226 


248 


271 


29s 


320 


346 



RELATION OF HORIZONTAL FEEDING AREA AND 
NUMBER OF COWS KEPT, FOR SILOS 24 AND 
30 FEET DEEP. (King.) 





Feed for 240 Days. 


Feed for 180 Days. 


No. of 


Silo 
24 Feet Deep. 


Silo 
30 Feet Deep. 


Silo 
24 Feet Deep. 


Silo 
30 Feet Deep. 


Cows. 


Rate 
1.2 In. Daily. 


Rate 
1.5 In. Daily. 


Rate 
1.6 In. Daily. 


Rate 
2 In. Daily. 




Tons. 


Inside 
Diam; 


Tons. 


Inside 
Diam. 


Tons. 


Inside 
Diam. 


Tons. 


Inside 
Diam. 


10 

IS 

20 

25 

30 

35 

40 

45 

50 

60 

70 

80 

90 

100 


48 
72 
96 
120 
144 
168 
192 
216 
240 
288 
336 
384 
432 
480 


Feet. 
12 
15 
17 
19 
21 
22 
24 
26 
27 
29 
32 
34 
36 
38 


48 
72 
96 
I 20 
144 
168 
192 
216 
240 
288 
336 
384 
432 
480 


Feet. 

T4 

16 
18 
19 

20 

21 
23 
25 
27 
29 
30 
32 


36 

54 

72 

90 

108 

126 

144 

162 

rSo 

216 

252 

288 

324 

360 


Feet. 
10 
13 
15 
16 
18 
19 
21 
22 
23 
25 
27 
29 
31 
33 


36 

54 

72 

90 

108 

126 

144 

162 

180 

216 

252 

288 

324 

360 


Feet. 
9 
II 
I 2 
14 
15 
16 
18 
19 
20 
21 
23 
25 
26 
28 



86 



AGRICULTURE. 



RELATION BETWEEN SIZE OF SILOS AND NUMBER 
OF COWS THEY WILL KEEP. 



Dimensions. 


Capacity, Tons. 


Acres to Fill, 

IS Tons to 

Acre. 


Cows it Will 

Keep 6 Months, 

40 lbs. Feed per 

Day. 


lo X 20 


28 


2 


8 


12X20 


40 




1 1 


12X24 


49 


3l 


13 


12X28 


60 




IS 


14X22 


61 


4i 


17 


14X24 


67 




19 


14X28 


8:i 


5J 


22 


14X30 


87 


6 


23 


16X24 


93 


61 


24 


16X26 


97 


7 


26 


16X30 


119 


8 


20 


18X30 


151 


loi 


37 


18X36 


180 


I2i 


45 



NUMBER OF PLANTS FOR AN ACRE OF GROUND. 



Distance apart, Number of 

Inches. Plants. 

3X3 696,960 



4X4.. 

6X6.. 

9X9.- 

Feet. 

iXi.. 

2X1.. 

2X2.. 
2^X2*. 

3X1.. 

3X2.. 

3X3.- 
siXsi- 

4X1.. 

4X2. . 

4X3.- 

4X4.- 
4^X4*- 

5X1.. 

5X2.. 

5X3.. 

5X4.. 
X5: 
Si 



.5X5.. 
liXsi. 



392,040 

174,240 

77,440 

43,560 

19,360 

21,780 

10,890 

6,960 

14,520 

7,260 

4,840 

3,555 

10,890 

5,445 

3,630 

2,722 

2,151 

8,711 

4,356, 

2 904 

2.178 

1,742 

1,417 



Distance apart, 

Feet. 

6X6 

6iX6i 

7X7 

8X8 

9X9 

10X10 

iiXir 

12X12 

13X13.... 
14X14.... 
15X15.... 

16X16 

16+X16J. .. 
17X17.... 

i§Xi8 

19X19.... 
20X 20. . . . 

25X25 

30X30. .. . 

33X33 

40 X 40 ... . 
50X50. .. . 

60X60 

66X66 



Number of 

Plants. 
. . 1,210 
. . 1,031 
881 
680 
537 
435 
360 
302 
257 
222 



193 

170 

160 

150 

134 

120 

108 

69 

48 

40 

27 

17 

12 

10 



FIELD CROPS. 



87 



NUMBER OF HILLS OR PLANTS ON AN ACRE OF 

land, for any distance apart, fk'om 10 in. to 6 ft., 
the lateral and longitudinal distances being un- 
equal. (Waring.) 





lO 

in. 


12 
in. 


IS 
in. 


18 
in. 


20 
in. 


2 ft. 


f 


3 ft. 


'It. 


4 ft. 


t 


5 ft. 


f 


6 ft. 


in. 

lO 


62726 




























12 


52272 


43560 


























IS 


41817 


34848 


27878 
























i8 


S4H4« 


29040 


2323a 


19360 






















so 

ft. 

2 


31363 


26136 


20908 


17424 


156B1 




















26136 


21780 


17424 


14520 


13068 


10890 


















2^ 


20908 


17424 


I393Q 


11616 


I04S4 


8712 


6969 
















^ 


17424 


14520 


11616 


9680 


8712 


7260 


s8o8 


4840 














3^ 


14935 


12446 


9953 


8297 


7467 


6223 


4976 


4148 


35^5 












4 


13068 


10890 


8712 


7260 


6534 


'i44'^ 


4356 


3630 


3111 


2722 










4V^ 


11616 


9680 


7744 


6453 


5808 


4840 


3872 3226 


2767 


2420 


2ISI 








S 


'0454 


8712 


6969 


s8o8 


5227 


4356 


3484 2qo4 


2489 


2178 


1936 


1742 






sM> 


0504 


7920 


6v.6 


5280 


4752 


3960 


516-i 2640 2263 


i9!-o 


1760 


1.S84 


1440 




6 


8712 


7260 


5«o8 


4840 


4356 


3630 


2004 ^420 


2074 


.865 


ibi3 


1452 


1320 1210 



YIELD OF A GOOD CROP OF FARM PRODUCTS 
PER ACRE. (Various Authorities.) 



Alfalfa 4 

Barley 50 

Beans, field 20 

Buckwheat 20 

Cabbage . 3 

Clover 2h 

Corn (shelled) 60' 

Cotton I 

Cowpea 15 

Field peas 20 

Flax 15 

Hay 2 

Mangels 24 

Millet 3 



tons 
Inis. 



bus. 
b^le 
bus. 



tons 



Oats 50 bus. 

Potatoes 200 ' * 

Rape 20 tons 

Rice 50 bus. 

Rutabagas 25 tons 

Rye 25 bus. 

Sorghum 10 tons 

Sugar beets 15 " 

Sugar-cane 20 " 

Sweet potatoes 200 bus. 

Tobacco 1 200 lbs. 

Turnips 20 tons 

Wheat (spring) 25 bus. 

Wheat (winter) 3° " 



88 



AGRICULTURE. 



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HORTICULTURE. 



89 



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90 



AGRICULTURE. 



DISTANCES APART FOR FRUIT TREES, 

Time Required to Bear Fruit, and Longevity. (Bailey.) 



Apples 

" dwarf... 
Blackberry 

Currant 

Gooseberry 

Orange and I 
lemon f . . 

Peach 

Pears 

Persimmon 

Plum 

Raspberry 

Strawberry 



Usual Distances. 



30 to 40 ft. each way. 



10 ft. each way. 
4x 7 to 6x8 ft.., 



4x5 feet 

4x5 feet 

25 to 30 ft. each way. 

16 to 20 ft. each way. 

20 to 30 ft. each way. 

20 to 25 ft. each way. 
16 to 20 ft. each way. 

3x6 feet 

1x3 or 4 feet 



Time Required to 
Bear. 



3 yrs. Good crop in 
about 10 years 



I yr. Good crop in 
2-3 years 

I yr. Good crop in 
2-3 years 

1 yr. Good crop in 
2-3 years 

2-3 yrs. Good crop 
2-3 years later 

2 yrs. Good crop in 

4 years 

3 or 4 yrs. Fair crop 
in 6-12 years 

I to 3 yrs 

3 yrs. Good crop in 

5 to 6 years 

I yr. Good crop in 

2 or 3 years 

I yr. Heaviest crop 
usually in 2 years... 



Average 
Profitable 
Longevity 
under high 

Culture. 



25-40 yrs. 

8-12 yrs. 
20 years. 
20 years. 
50 or more. 
8-12 yrs. 
50-75 yrs. 

25-40 yrs. 
20-25 ys. 

8-12 yrs. 
3 years. 



TIME OF GERMINATION OF VEGETABLE SEEDS 
AND MATURITY TABLE. (Morse.) 





Time 
of Ger- 
mina- 
tion. 


Maturity 
Table. 




Time 
of Ger- 
mina- 
tion. 


Maturity 
Table. 


Bean 


Days. 
5-10 
7-10 
5-10 

12-20 
5-10 

10-20 
5-8 
6-10 
5-10 
6-8 


Days. 

40-60 

•40-50 

90-115 

90—110 

150-160 
65-90 
55-75 

65-75 
125-150 
125-150 


Onion 


Days. 
7-10 


Days. 
130—150 


Beet 


Parsley 


go— I 20 


Cabbage 


Parsnip 


10—20 
6-10 

10—14 
3-6 
7-12 


120-150 

40-90 
140—160 


Pea 








Radish 


Com (sweet). . . . 


Salsify 






60-80 


Endive 


Squash 




I 20—1 50 


Lettuce 


Tomato. .. 


6-12 
4-8 


I 10— I 20 


Melon water. . . 


Turnip 


60-75 















HORTICULTURE. 91 

AVERAGE YIELDS PER ACRE OF VARIOUS 
CROPS. (Bailey.) 

Apples A tree 20 to 30 years old may be expected 

to yield from 25 to 40 bus. every alter- 
nate year. 

Artichoke 200 to 300 bus. 

Beans, green or 

snap 75 to 120 bus. 

Bean, Lima 75 to 100 bus. of dry beans. 

Beet 400 to 700 bus. 

Carrots 400 to 700 bus. 

Corn 50 to 7S bus. , shelled. 

Cranberry 100 to 300 bus. ; 900 bus. have been reported. 

Cucumber About 150,000 fruits per acre. 

Currant , , . 100 bus. 

Egg-plant I or 2 large fruits to the plant for the large 

sorts like New York purple, and from 3 
to 8 fruits for the smaller varieties. 

Gooseberry 100 bus. 

Grape 3 to 5 tons. Good raisin vineyards in 

California, 15 years old, will produce 
from 10 to 12 tons. 

Horse-radish. ... 3 to 5 tons. 

Kohlrabi 500 to 1000 bus. 

Onion, from seed 300 to 800 bus. ; 600 bus. is a large average 
yield. 

Parsnip 500 to 800 bus. 

Pea. green, in pod 100 to 150 bus. 

Peach In full bearing a peach-tree should produce 

from 5 to 10 bus. 

Pear A tree 20 to 25 years old should give from 

25 to 45 bus. 

Pepper 30,000 to 50,000 fruits. 

Plum 5 to S bus. may be considered an average 

crop for an average tree. 

Potato 100 to 300 bus. 

Quince 200 to 400 bus. 

Raspberry and 

blackberry. ... 50 to 100 bus. 

Salsify 200 to 300 bus. 

Spinach 200 barrels. 

Strawberry. . . , . . 75 to 250 or even 300 bus. 

Tomato 8 to 16 tons. 

Turnip 600 to 1000 bus. 



92 AGRICULTURE. 

A COMBINED FRUIT AND VEGETABLE GARDEN. 

(CORBETT.) 

The following plan is suggested for a combined fruit and 
vegetable garden for a farm or city home on a lot 100X80 ft., 
the fruit garden occupying an area of 60X 80 ft. and the vegetable 
garden an area of 40X80 ft. 

A. Fruit-bearing Plants that can be grown on an area of 60X80 
ft.: 

32 grape-vines, dispersed at intervals of 10 ft. around the entire 
garden. 

3 rows of dwarf pears, each containing 6 trees (rows Nos. 2, 
10, 14). 

I row of peaches, 6 trees (row No. 4). 

I row of cherries, 6 trees (row No. 8). 

I row of dwarf apples, 6 trees (row No. 6). 

I row of plums, 6 trees (row No. 12). 

1 row, 20 specimens blackberries (row No. i). 

2 rows, 40 specimens black-caps (rows Nos. 3 and 5). 

2 rows, 40 specimens red raspberries (rows Nos. 7 and 9). 

3 rows, 300 specimens strawberries (rows Nos. 11, 13, and 15). 

B. Vegetable Plants that can be grown on an area of 40X 80 ft. : 
I row, J row rhubarb, J row asparagus (occupying 4 ft.). 

I row, salsify (i J ft.). 

1 row, parsnips (i^ ft.). 

2 rows, beets (3 ft.). 

1 row, egg-plant, plants set 18 in. apart, 2 doz. (3 ft.), 

2 rows, tomatoes, plants set 2 ft. apart, 2 doz. (6 ft.). 

1 row, summer squash, 12 hills, 3 ft. apart (3 ft.). 

2 rows, cucumber, 24 hills, 3 ft. apart (i ft.). 

2 rows, early cabbage, 4 doz. plants, set 18 in. apart (4 ft.), 
2 rows, late cabbage, 4 doz. plants, set 18 in. apart (4 ft.). 

1 row, early celery, 6 doz. plants, set 6 in. apart (2 ft.). 

8 rows, peas, plant in double rows, 4 in. apart; follow by 6 
rows, late celery, 36 plants (16 ft.). 

2 rows, lima beans, 4 doz. hills, 18 in. apart (4 ft.). ^ 

6 rows, bunch beans; in succession sow seeds in drills, placing 



HORTICULTUEE. 



93 



seeds about 6 in. apart in the row; follow by late cabbage, 
turnips, or spinach (12 ft.). 

2 rows, radishes, 4 sowings, planted in double rows 6 in. 
apart (3 ft.). 

2 rows, lettuce, 2 sorts, adapted for early and late use (3 ft.). 

I row, parsley and pepper grass (i| ft.). 

The space occupied by the last three plants may be given over 
to winter squashes by planting these before other crops are off 
the ground. (See Farmers' Bull. No. 154.) 



A VEGETABLE FORCING CALENDAR. (Wood.) 





Night 


Day 


From 
Seed. 








Tern. 
°F. 


Tern. 
°F. 


Soil. 


Notes. 


Tomato. . 


60-65 


75 


5 mos. 


Rich loose 
loam. 


Transplant twice into 
pots, hand pollinate, 
grow on benches. 


Lettuce. . 


45-50 


SS-65 


lO-I 2 w. 


Open, porous, 
dry on sur- 
face. 


Solid or ground beds 
best, transplant. 


Parsley. . . 


45-5° 


55-65 


8 wks. 


Open, well 
drained. 


Best from spring-sown 
plants; trai;isplant 
and cut back. ' 


VVater- 


45-50 


55-65 


4-6 wks. 


Moist, cool 


Not at all particular. 


cress 








uniformly 


grow under bench any- 
where. 


Pepper- 


45-50 


55-65 


3-4 wks. 


Well drained 


Grow in beds with cau- 


cress 








cool soil. 


liflower, lettuce, etc. 


Radishes. 


45-50 


55-65 


5-6 wks. 


Warm, quick 
no coarse 
manure. 


Rapid growth essential; 
no old manure. 


Beans. ... 


60-65 


70-80 


6-8 wks. 


"Quick," i.e., 
loam and i 
thoroughly 

rotted man'e 


Best as catch crop be- 
tween melons and to- 
matoes. 


Peas 


45-50 


55-65 


70-80 d. 


Solid beds of 
rich, sandy 
soil. 


Do not yield heavily, 
and are useless after 
April I. 


Cauli- 


50 


60-65 


4-5 mos. 


Solid bed gar- 


Transplant once, abun- 


flower 








den loam and 
i rotten ma- 
nure. 


dance of air and free 
drainage, yet plenty 
of water. 


Mush- 


50-60 


50-60 


6-8 wks. 


Moist (not 


Grow under benches, or 


rooms 








wet) manure, 

4 parts, loam, 

I part. 


anywhere that even 
temperature can be 
had. 


Asparagus 


50-55 


60-70 


2-3 wks. 


Pack under 
benches in 
any material. 


3-4 years' roots from 
field; crop depends 
on vigor. 


Spinach. . 


45-50 


55-65 


8-10 w. 


Open, porous, 
well enriched. 


Grow as a catch crop 
between cauliflower, 
etc. 



94 



AGRICULTURE. 



SEASONS OF VARIETIES OF APPLES IN VARIOUS 
STORAGES. (Beach and Clark.) 



Alexander * 

Baldwint 

Esopus, Spitzenburg t 
+ 

Fallawater * 

t 

Fall Pippin *.'.'.'.'.'.'.'. 
Fameuse * 

t 

Hubbardston * 

Jonathan J 

Maiden Blush * 

Mcintosh t 

Northern Spy J 

R. I. Greening * 

" t 



Season in 



Chemi- 
cal Cold 
Storage 



Nov. 

June 1 5 

May 

June I 5 

March 

April 

Mar. 3c 

May 

Nov. 

Dec. 

April I 

March 

March 

Nov. 

Jan. 

April 

Feb. 

April 



Ice 
Storage 



Nov. 
Mav ] 
April 
June : 



March 
Mar. 2o 



Nov, 
Dec. 
Feb. ] 
Feb. 



Nov. 



March 

Feb. 

March 



Cellar 
Storage 



Oct. 

April I 

March 

May I 

Jan. 

Jan. 

Mar. I 

Jan. 

Oct. 

Oct. 

Feb. I 

Dec. 

Jan. 

Oct. 

Nov. 

Feb. 

Dec. 

Feb. 



Difference in Season 
between 



Cellar 
and 
Ice 

Stor- 
age. 


Ice 

and 
Chem- 
ical 
Stor- 
age. 


Mos. 
I 

I 

I 


Mos. 
o 

I 
i 


2 


I 
i 


I 

2 
i 
2 

I 


o 
o 

li 

I 
o 


r 

2 

I 


I 
o 
I 



Cellar 
and 

Chem- 
ical 

Stor 



Mos. 



*, t, t. Reports of Chicago, Minneapolis, and New York Commission 
men, respectively. 



PACKAGES USED IN SHIPPING FRUIT. (Watjgh ) 



Fruit. 


Package. 


Approximate Cost. 


Apple 


Barrel, loo quarts, or 3 bushels . . . 
Boxes various sizes 


$25 the 100 
Variable 




Slat crate, mostly half bushel 


$4.50 the 100 


Peach 


Delaware basket 

Michigan basket, one-fifth bushel . . 
Six-basket carrier 


$2 to $3 the 100 

$3 the 100 

$7 to $10 the 100 


Pe^r 






Plum 


Half-barrel, i^ bushels 

Boxes and baskets of various kinds 

Grape basket, 10 pounds 

Six-basket carrier 


$15 to $20 the 100 

$2.50 the TOO 

$7 to $10 the 100 



HORTICULTURE. 



95 



PACKAGES USED IN SHIPPING FHVIT— Continued. 



Fruit. 



Cherry 



Quince . 



Berries 



Package. 



Strawberry quart boxes and crates. 



5-pound grape basket 

Slat crate, h bushel 

:; ;; * ;; 

Baskets in various styles. Also 

barrels. 
Quart boxes in crates 



Approximate Cost. 



Quart boxes, $2 to 
$3 the 1000; 16- 
qt. crates, $5 to $6 
the 100 



$3 the 100 
$4.50 the 100 
$7 the 100 



Quart boxes, 

$3 the 1000 
i6-qt. crates, 

$6 the 100 
24-qt. crates, 

$15 the 100 



$2 to 
$5 to 
$7 to 



RELATION OP SPECIFIC GRAVITY, 

Dry Matter, and Starch Content of Potatoes. 

(Wolff.) 



Spec. 
Grav. 


Dry 
Sub- 
stance. 


Starch 
Con- 
tent. 


Spec. 
Grav. 


Dry 
Sub- 
stance. 


Starch 
Con- 
tent. 


Spec. 
Grav. 


Dry 
Sub- 
stance. 


Starch 
Con- 
tent. 




Per ct. 


Per ct. 




Per ct. 


Per ct. 




Per ct. 


Per ct. 


1.080 


iy.7 


13-9 


1. 107 


25-5 


19.7 


I 134 


31-3 


25-5 


.081 


19.9 


14. 1 


.108 


25-7 


19.9 


•135 


31-5 


25-7 


.082 


20.1 


14.3 


.109 


25.9 


20.1 


.136 


31-7 


25-9 


.083 


20.3 


14.5 


I. no 


26.1 


20.3 




31-9 


26.1 


.084 


20.5 


147 


• III 


26.3 


20.5 


.138 


32.1 


26.3 


.085 


20.7 


14.9 


.112 


26.5 


20.7 


.139 


32.3 


26.5 


.086 


20.9 


151 


.113 


26.7 


20.9 


1. 140 


32.5 


26.7 


■°tz 


21 2 


15-4 


.114 


26.9 


21. 1 


.141 


32.8 


27.0 


.088 


21.4 


15.6 


."5 


27.2 


21.4 


.142 


33 -o 


27.3 


.089 


21.6 


15.8 


.116 


27.4 


21.6 


.143 


33-2 


27.4 


1.090 


21.8 


16.0 


.117 


27.6 


21.8 


.144 


33-4 


27.6 


.091 


22.0 


16.2 


.118 


27.8 


22.0 


.145 


33-6 


27.8 


.092 


22.2 


16.4 


.119 


28.0 


22.2 


.146 


33-8 


28.0 


•093 


22.4 


16.6 


1. 120 


28.3 


22.5 


.147 


34-1 


283 


.094 


22.7 


16.9 


.121 


28.5 


22.7 


.148 


34.3 


28.5 


.095 


22.9 


17. 1 


.122 


28.7 


22.9 


.149 


34-5 


28.7 


.096 


23.1 


17-3 


.123 


28.9 


23.1 


1. 150 


34-7 


28.9 


.097 


233 


17.5 


.124 


29.1 


23-3 


• 151 


34-9 


29.1 


.098 


23-5 


17.7 


.125 


293 


235 


.152 


35-1 


29-3 


.099 


23-7 


17.9 


.126 


29-5 


23-7 


•153 


35-4 


29.6 


l.IOO 


24.0 


18.2 


.127 


29.8 


24.0 


.154 


35-6 


29.8 


.101 


24.2 


18.4 


.128 


30.0 


24.2 


•155 


35-8 


30.0 


.102 


24.4 


18.6 


.129 


30.2 


24.4 


.156 


36.0 


30.3 


.103 


24.6 


18.8 


1. 130 


30.4 


24.6 


•157 


36.2 


30- 4 


.104 


24.8 


19.0 


•131 


30.6 


24.8 


.158 


36.4 


30.6 


.105 


35.0 


19.2 


.132 


30.8 


25.0 


•159 


36.6 


30.8 


,io6 


25.2 


19.4 


•133 


31.0 


25.2 


1.160 


36.9 


31. 1 



96 



AGRTCULTUKE. 



SPECIFIC GRAVITY, SUGAR CONTENT, AND 
BOILING-POINT OF MAPLE SIRUP. 

(Cooke and Hills.) 



1 


> 


*< cD 


4; >-■ 


a; tuo 




S . 


re u 


u 


m| 




^s 


a. 


li 


V 







S C 3 






III 




VC 
Q,— < 


I 


.5 vm 




c 




Q 


in 


Q 


< 


H 


a 


25 


1.205 


44-9 


41 


215.0° F. 


To.olbs. 


68 


26 


I 215 


46.8 


43 


215. 1 


10. 1 


72 


27 


1.226 


48.7 


45 


215-3 


10.2 


75 


28 


1.236 


SO. 5 


47 


2T5 6 


10.3 


78 


29 


1 .246 


52-4 


49 


215.9 


10.4 


82 


30 


1-257 


54-3 


51 


216.2 


TO-5 


85 


31 


1.268 


56.2 


53 


216.6 


10.6 


88 


32 


1.279 


58.1 


54 


217.0 


10.7 


90 


33 


1.290 


60 


56 


217.4 


10.7 


93 


34 


1.302 


62.0 


58 


218. T 


10.8 


97 


35 


1-313 


63-9 


60 


218.6 


10. q 


100 


36 


1-325 


65-8 


62 


219-5 


II. 


103 


37 


1-337 


67.8 


64 


220.3 


II. I 


107 


38 


I -350 


69.8 


66 


221.2 


II. 2 


no 


39 


1 .362 


71.8 


68 


222.0 


II-3 


"3 


40 


1-374 


73-7 


70 


223.2 


11.4 


117 


41 


1.387 


75-7 


72 


224.5 


II. 6 


120 


42 


1.400 


77-7 


74 


226.0 


II. 7 


123 


43 


I 415 


79.8 


75 


227.8 


II. 8 


125 


44 


1.428 


81.8 


77 


229.7 


II. 9 


128 


45 


1.442 


83.9 


79 


231.8 


12.0 


132 


46 


1-457 


86.0 


81 


234.0 


12. 1 


135 


47 


1. 471 


88.1 


83 


236-3 


12.3 


138 


48 


1.486 


90.2 


85 


238.7 


12.4 


142 



'* The per cents of sugar given are calculated for a fairly- 
good sirup. The relative values in the last column are 
based on these per cents, but will be nearly the same for 
all except the poorest of sirups. The relative value is 
made use of as follows: A weight of 11 pounds per gallon, 
and 35° Baume is taken as the standard; dividing the 
weight of the sirup by 11 gives the number of standard 
gallons; multiplying the price that is to be paid for 11- 
pound sirup by the relative value figure, and dividing by 
100, gives the price to be paid per standard gallon. 

"'Example : If 75 cents a gallon is to be paid for ii-pound 



HORTICULTURE. 



97 



sirup, how much should be paid for 671 pounds of sirup 
testing 31° by the Baume hydrometer ? 
671 -^ II = 61 standard gallons. 

75 X 88 -H 100 = 66 cents per gallon. 

61 X 66 = $41.26, price to be paid." 



WEIGHT OF SUGAR OBTAINED FROM 100 LBS. 
OF 3IAPLE SIRUP 

Weighing- 11 lbs. to the Gallon, when Sugaied Off' at 
Different Temperatures. (Cooke and Hh.ls.) 



2S0 




h 


Si 
be 
'S i_" 


£ be 




bfi 

h 


4-. 
x: 


<U 3 




^ 3 


<u 3 


a =" 


»^ 3 


goO 


.t/5 


om 


v'^ 




.t/5 


4JC/) 


^^ 


< 


X 


r 


<: 


bf:o 
X 


1° 

H-1 


° Fahr. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


° Fahr. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


232 


82.7 


82.0 


83.3 


238 


79-5 


78.5 


80.7 


233 


81.9 


80.5 


82.8 


239 


79-2 


78 4 


80.3 


234 


81.2 


80.0 


81.9 


240 


78.7 


78.2 


79 7 


2^5 


80.8 


79-5 


81.6 


241 


78.5 


77-9 


79-3 


236 


80.5 


79-5 


!-i.l 


242 


78.1 


77-4 


78.9 


237 


80.0 


79.0 


80.9 











SORGHUM SIRUP OBTillNED FROM JUICE OF 
DIFFERENT DENSITIES. 



(Cleland ) 



Density 
of Juice. 

6°. . . . 

6.5°... 



Gal. Sirup 
Obtained from 

10 
9 



gal. juice. 



7-5^ 



«-5 
8 

7-5 



Density 
of Juice. 



Gal. Sirup 
Obtained from 


7 


gal. juice 


6 


5 " " 


6 


a <( 


5 


5 " " 


5 


( ( (( 



Sorghum juice usually shows 8° to 10° density; thin semi- 
sirup is 20° density, heavy semi-siru.p is 30°, hot finished sirup 
is 36° to 38°, and cold sirup about 40° density. (Wiley.) 



98 



AGRICULTURE. 



TEMPERATURES TO WHICH PERISH A RT.E 

GOODS MAY BE SUBJECTED WITHOUT IN- 

JURY. (U. S. Department of Agriciiltuke.) 



Name of Article. 



Apples, in bbls 

'* loose 

Apricots, baskets 

Asparagus 

Bananas 

Beans, snap 

Beets 

Cabbage, early or late 

Cantaloupes . . 

Cauliflower ... 

Celery 

Chee.se. 

Cranberries 

Cucumbers 

Eggs, bbrd or crated 

Fish 

Flowers 

Grapes. ... 

Kale 

Leek ... 

Lemons 

Lettuce 

Mandarins 

Milk 

Olives, in bulk 

'* " glass 

Onions, boxes 

Onions 

Oranges . - 

Parsley 

Parsnips 

Peaches, fresh.b'skets 

Peas. 

Pineapples 

Plums 

Potatoes, Irish.. . . 
" sweet.. . 

Radishes 

Rice 

Shrubs, roses, or trees 

Spinach 

Strawberries 

Tangerines 

Thyme 

Tomatoes, fresh... 

Turnips, late 

Watermelons 



Low< St Outside 
Temperature 



° F. 



20 

25 

15 

zero 

25 
20 
20 



° F. 



zero 
ztro 
zero 
zero 
zero 



zero 
zero 



Remarks. 



Covered with straw. 
Packed in straw. 

In boxes covered with mo9«. 
Bulk or boxes with straw. 
In barrels or crates. 
In crates. 
Barrels or crates. 

Ill barrels with straw. 
Packed in crates. 



In boxes with moss. 

In barrels always iced. 
Packeci in moss. 
Packed in cork. 
Packed in boxes or crates. 
Packed in boxes. 
In boxes or crates. 
In bo.xes or crates. 
In boxes. 

In barrels. 



In barrels, boxes, or crates. 
Baskets, boxes,bbls., or crates. 
In b.iskels. 
In baskets or barrels. 

In baskets or barrels. 

In barrels, crates, or in bulk. 

In boxes with paper. 

In barrels or baskets. 

In barrels or baskets. 

In baskets. 

In baskels or sacks. 

In canvas or sacking. 

In barrels or crates. 

In boxes. 

In small baskets. 

In barrels. 

/ n barrels and in bulk. 



HORTICULTURE. 



99 



TEMPERATURES INJURIOUS TO PLiANTS. 

(U. S. Dept. ok Agriculture.) 

The following table shows the temperatures at which the 
plants mentioned are liable to receive injury from frost. 
The temperatures are, as nearly as possible, those of the 
air in contact with the plant itself. 



Plant or Fruit. 



Almonds 

Apples 

Apricots 

Asparagus 

Bananas 

Barley 

Beans 

Beets 

Cabbage 

Cantaloupes 

Cauliflower 

Celery 

Cucumbers 

Cymlings or squash. 

Flowers * 

Grapes 

Grape-fruit 

Lemons , 

Lettuce 

Mandarins 

Oats 

Okra.. 

Olives 

Onions. 



Oranges + 

Parsnips 

Peaches 

Pears , 

Peas 

Plums 

Potatoes: Irish 

Sweet 

Prunes 

Radishes 

Shrubs, trees, or roses. 

Spinach 

Strawberries , 

Tangerines , 

Tomatoes , 

Turnips 

Watermelons 

Wheat 

Walnuts, English 



In Bud. 



Bl 



In 



In Setting 
Fruit. 



At Other 
Times. 



25 
15-27 

30-31 
20-27 

28 

32 

30 

30 

28 

28 

28 
12-28 

28 



ji8t 

|24§ 

20 
(26* 

1 29§ 

27 

2g 
28 
25 
29 

3» 
3" 
29 

25 
30-26 

21 

30 

?8 

31 

26 
28-31 



* Depends on variety, t Injured at 2 higher if continued 4-6 hours, 
t Ripe. § Green. 



100 



AGKICULTUKE. 



BEST TEMPERATURES FOR PRESERVING 
HORTICULTURAL PRODUCTS. 

(Faville and Hall.) 



Product, 


Temperature, 
Degrees. 


Package. 


Time. 


Apples, summer 

Apples, winter 


38 to 42 

32 to 35 

33 to 38 
36 to 38 
38 to 40 
38 to 40 

40 
40 
40 
40 
40 
40 

38 to 42 
38 to 40 
35 

34 to 38 
34 to 40 
36 to 40 
34 


Barrels or boxes. 

Crates. 

In sawdust,in boxes. 

Crates. 

Quart boxes. 

Crates. 

Boxes. 
.... 


2 to 4 months. 

5 to 8 months. 
2 to 4 months. 
2 to 4 weeks. 

6 to 8 weeks. 
2 to 4 weeks. 
I to 3 weeks. 


Peaches 


Grapes 

Plums 


Berries and cherries.. 


Lemons, oranges 


8 to 12 weeks. 
8 to 12 weeks. 


Watermelons 


3 to 6 weeks. 
2 to 3 weeks. 
2 to 4 weeks. 
I to 3 weeks. 






Tomatoes 


Crates. 

Boxes. 
Barrels. 

Boxes. 


Celery 

Cranberries 




Onions 





Asparagus, cabbage.. 





THE PRESERVATION OF SOFT FRUITS FOR 
EXHIBITION PURPOSES. 

(Department of Agriculture, Ottawa, Canada.) 

To preservestrawberries, raspberries, and other soft fruits, 
the following mixtures are recommended. The alcohol is 
not necessary except where the bottles will be exposed to 
frost. The chemicals mentioned in the list may be obtained 
at any drugstore. 

General Directions. — Select the finest specimens of the 
fruit both as to form and size. Handle them carefully to 
avoid all bruising, and place them in bottles, arranging the 
specimens so as to show them to the best advantage. Fill 
each bottle to the neck with fruit, then pour on the fluid 
recommended, filling the bottles to within half an inch of 
the stopper so as to entirely cover the fruit. Then place 
the stopper in the bottle and run a little beeswax or paraf- 
fin over the joint to make it air-tight. Tie the stopper 
down with a piece of strong co»^ton and attach to each bottle 



HORTICULTURE, 101 

a label containing the following particulars : Name of the 
variety of fruit, name and address of the grower. Write 
also in each case in one corner of the label the letter sug- 
gested to indicate the fluid which has been used. Wrap the 
bottles in paper to exclude the light, and preserve in a cellar 
or other cool place until required for shipment. Strawber- 
ries and raspberies should be cut from the plants or bushes 
with a pair of scissors, leaving a short piece of stem at- 
tached to each. 

Fluid no. i. — Formalin (formaldehyde), one pound (i6 
oz.) ; water, 44 pounds ; alcohol, 5 pints. Allow the mix- 
ture to stand, and should there be any sediment, pour oft 
the clear liquid and filter the remainder through filtering- 
paper. This two-per-cent. solution of formalin has been 
found very useful for preserving strawberries so as to give 
them a natural appearance. 

In each case where this fluid is used, mark F on one 
corner of the label. 

Fluid No. 2. — A solution of boric acid in the proportion 
of two per cent. Dissolve one pound of boric (boracic) acid 
in 45 pounds of water, agitate until dissolved, then add 5 
pints of alcohol. If the fluid is not clear, allow it to stand 
and settle, when the clear upper portion may be poured off 
and the remainder filtered. 

In each case where this fluid is used, mark B on one 
corner of the label. 

Fluid No. 3. — A solution of zinc chlorid in the propor- 
tion of three per cent. Dissolve one-half pound of zinc 
chlorid in 15 pounds of water, agitate until dissolved, then 
add if pints of alcohol. Allow the mixture to stand until 
settled, then pour off the clear fluid and filter the remainder. 

In each case where this fluid is used, mark Z on one 
corner of the label. 

Fluid No. 4. — Sulfurous acid, i pint ; water, 8 pints ; 
alcohol, I pint. Allow the mixture to stand, and should 
there be any sediment, pour off the clear liquid and filter 
the remainder. 

In each case where this fluid is used, mark S on the 
corner of the label. 



102 AGRICULTURE. 

List of Fruits with the Names of Preservatives to be Used in 

Each Case. 

(Where two fluids are named either may be used, but the first named is preferred.) 

Strawberries. — Solution No. i, form 
alin 



Apples, Green and Russet. — No. 3, 
zinc chiorid. 

Apples, more or less Red. — No. 2, 
boric acid. 

App'es, White and YeUow. — No. 4, 
sulfurous ac'd. 

Pears, Russet — No. 3, zinc chiorid. 

Pears, (ireen or Ye low. — No 4, sul- 
furous acid. 

Plums, dark-co'ored varieties. — No. 
I, forma. in; No. 2, boric acid. 

Plums, Cireen or Yellow. — No. 4, 
sulfurous acid. 

Peaches, Apricots, Nectari es, or 
Quinces. — No. 4, sulfurous acid; 
No. 3, zinc chiorid. 

Grapes, Red or Black. — No. i, form- 
alin; No. 2, boric acid. 

Grapes, Green or Ye:low. — No. 4, 
su.furous acid. 



Raspberries, Red. — No. 2, boric acid; 

No. I, formalin. 
Raspberries, White. —No. 4. sulfur- 
ous acid; No. 3, zinc chiorid. 
Raspberries, Black. — No. 2, boric 

acid. 
Blackberries. — No. 2, boric acid; 

No. I, formalin. 
Cherries, Red ani Back — No. i, 

formalin; No. 2, boiic acid. 
Cherries, White. — No. 4, sulfurous 

acid. 
Currants. Red. — No. i, formalin ; 

No. 2. boric acid. 
Currants, White. — No. 4, sulfurous 

acid; No. 3, zinc chiorid. 
Currants, Black. — No. 2, boric acid. 
Gooseberries. — No. i, formalin; No. 

2, boric acid. 

THE STANDARDS OF THE BALTIMORE CANNED 
f GOODS EXCHANGE. (Pa. Dept. of Agriculture.) 

A. Fruits. 

Apples. — Pared and cored, clear in color; cans to be full of 
fruit, put up in water. 

Blackberries. — Cans to cut out not less than two-thirds full 
after draining; fruit to be sound, put up in water. 

Cherries, White Wax. — Cans to be full of fruit, free of specks 
and decay, put up in not less than ten degrees of cold cane-sugar 
syrup. 

Cherries, Red. — Cans full of fruit, free of specks or decay, 
put up in water. 

Gooseberries. — Cans to cut out not less than two-thirds full 
after draining; fruit unripe and uncapped; put up in water. 

Egg Plums and Green Gages. — Cans full, whole fruit, free from 
reddish color or specks, put up in not less than ten degrees of 
cold cane-sugar syrup. 

Peaches. — Cans full, fruit good size, evenly pared, cut in half 
pieces, put up in not less than ten degrees of cold cane-sugar 
syrup. 

Pie Peaches. — Cans full, fruit sound, unpared, cut in half pieces, 
put up in water. 

Pears. Bartlett. — Cans full, fruit white and clear, pared, cut in 



HORTICULTURE. 103 

half or quarter pieces, put up in not less than ten degrees of 
cold cane-sugar syrup. 

Pears, Bell or Duchess. — Cans full, fruit pared, cut in half or 
quarter pieces, put up in not less than ten degrees of cold cane- 
sugar syrup. 

Pineapples. — Cans full, fruit sound and carefully pared, slices 
laid in evenly, put up in not less than ten degrees of cold cane- 
sugar syrup. 

Plums and Damsons. — Cans full, sound fruit, put up in water. 

Quinces. — Cans full, fruit pared and cored, cut in half or 
quarter pieces, put up in not less than ten degrees of cold cane- 
sugar syrup. 

Raspberries. — Cans to cut out not less than two-thirds full and 
after draining, fruit to be sound, put up in not less than ten 
degrees of cold cane-sugar syrup. 

Strawberries. — Cans to cut out after draining not less than 
half full of fruit, which shall be sound, and not of the variety 
known as seedlings, put up in not less than ten degrees of cold 
cane-sugar syrup. 

Whortleberries. — Cans full, fruit to be sound, put up in water. 

B. Vegetables. 

Lima Beans. — Cans full of green beans, clear liquor. 

String Beans. — Cans full, beans young and tender and care- 
fully strung, packed during growing season. 

Corn. — Sweet corn only to be used from the cob while young 
and tender, cans to cut out full of corn. 

Peas. — Cans full of young and tender peas, free of yellow or 
black eyes, clear liquor. 

Pumpkin. — To be solid packed as possible, free from lumps 
and of good color. 

Succotash. — Cans to be full of green corn and green lima beans. 

Tomatoes. — Cans to be reasonably solid, of good, ripe fruit, 
cold packed. 

STANDARD SIZES FOR CANS. 

Diameter. Height. 1 Diameter. Height. 

No. I Cans 2j in. 4 in. I No. 6 Cans, twice the quantity of 

No. 2 Cans 3ib " 4ib " I No. 3. 

No. 3 Cans 4tb " 4I " No. 10 Cans 6i in. 7 in. 



104 AGRICULTURE. 



VI. SEEDS. 

SEED-TESTING FOR THE FARMER. 

By the late Gilbert H. Hicks, of U. S. Department of Agriculture.* 

Not less important than good soil and suitable cultivation 
is seed of the best obtainable quality. In no feature of 
farm practice is niggardly economy or lack of proper atten- 
tion more productive of disappointment and loss than in 
the failure to provide proper seed for sowing. The market 
gardener is fully alive to this fact, and makes the purchase 
of desirable seed his foremost care. He wants not only 
seed which will grow, but also that which will produce an 
even stand and yield a large crop of the very best vegetables. 
The matter of paying a few cents or even a dollar extra 
per pound is to him of no significance, since he knows by 
long experience that the increased value of his crop will 
far outweigh the extra cost of the seed. 

With many farmers this care in the selection of seed is 
often lacking. Frequently the land is all tilled and ready 
for sowing before the seed is bought. It is then too late 
to give it a careful preliminary test, even if the owner de- 
sired to do so. This results very often in a poor stand, 
perhaps in a failure of the crop, or in the scattering of 
hordes of weeds all over the farm, which usurp the place 
of the cultivated plants, and cost infinite trouble in their 
eradication. This is especially noticeable in the case of 
the clovers, grasses, and other forage plants. No matter 
how poor the seed turns out to be, after once sown it is too 
late to secure any redress from the se«dsman. Besides, 
there are very few places in this country where one can 
get seed tested in order that its real value may be ascer- 
tained before sowing. It becomes, then, a matter of great 
importance to the farmer to provide himself with some 
simple but efficient means for testing his seed before it is 
sown. 

All seed which is to be used for spring sowing should be 
procured whenever possible in the previous fall or winter. 

* Revised by A. J. Pieters, late Botanist in Cha'-ge of Seed and Piant Intro- 
duction, U. S. Department 6f Agriculture. 



SEEDS. 105 

The long winter months will give ample opportunity for 
close examination of the seed, and if any of it be found of 
inferior-quality, as will not infrequently prove to be the case, 
there will be plenty of time to replace it with a desirable 
article. In all cases seed should be bought of the most re- 
liable seedsmen. In many instances it will pay to get seed 
from the large dealers, as they have first-class opportu- 
nities for handling the very best seed in the country. The 
extra cost for carriage will be a small item compared with 
the chance for obtaining good seed. 

No matter from what source the seed is obtained, nor 
how reliable the dealer, every farmer should test each lot 
of seed he expects to plant. Besides learning its quality, 
he will often obtain valuable information concerning the 
depth, temperature, and amount of moisture needed, etc. 
Furthermore, if the seed fails to come up well, the planter 
will have some intelligent data for ascertaining the reason, 
and will not be obliged to depend entirely upon the state- 
ment of seed catalogues, which convey the impression that 
failure to germinate is more likely to be the fault of the 
outdoor conditions than of the seed itself. 

Good seed is marked by three characteristics : purity — 
or freedom from foreign matter, whether Seeds of weeds 
or other plants ; vitality — or capacity for sprouting under 
favorable conditions ; and genuineness — or trueness to 
name. If any of these qualities be lacking, the seed is un- 
worthy of general trial. 

Purity. — Most vegetable seeds, especially if grown in 
America, are quite free from admixture. Seed of the cab- 
bage family, however, if grown abroad, and sometimes 
that of American origin, may contain a mixture of wild 
mustard or similar seed, often so near like the good seed 
as to be almost indistinguishable from it. 

Clover and grass seed is very likely to contain more oi 
less seed of noxious weeds or inferior grasses ; hence a 
careful purity test is necessary in such cases. Hairy vetch 
and other leguminous forage seeds, excepting the clovers, 
generally come from Europe and are frequently impure. 
Often it will require considerable care to detect impurities 



106 AGRICULTURE. 

in the seeds of forage plants, and in case of any doubt 
samples of such seed should be sent to the nearest experi- 
ment station or to the Department of Agriculture for ex- 
amination. 

Purity tests are usually made by weighing out a few 
ounces of seed which has been well stirred up so as to 
make the sample uniform. This seed is placed upon a 
pane of glass under which is a piece of light-colored paper, 
and the sample is carefully gone over seed by seed with a 
small forceps until all the impurities are separated out. 
After again weighing, the percentage of impurity is easily 
obtained. If the impurity consists of chaff or dirt, the loss 
will consist only in paying for something which will not 
grow. This will render necessary the sowing of more than 
the usual amount of seed to the acre. If weed seeds are 
present, there will be greater or less loss according to the 
character of the weeds. Such seeds as Canada thistle, 
dodder, Russian thistle, chess, wild mustard, cockle, plan- 
tain, black medic, daisy, penny-cress, wild carrot, wild 
oats, and a few others, are serious pests. Every farmer 
should be able to recognize these weed seeds, and avoid all 
seed which contains any of them even in small amounts. 
He should also be familiar with the ordinary grass seeds of 
trade, such as June grass, orchard grass, the common fes- 
cues, red top, tall meadow oat grass, etc. Grass-seed 
mixtures almost invariably contain a large proportion of 
seed of inferior, if not worthless, species, dirt, and chaff, 
and should be avoided. It is much better to find out what 
grasses are adapted to one's fields or pastures and to buy 
such seed separately, mixing it at home. 

If scales are not at hand, the amount of pure seed in a 
given sample can be approximately learned by placing the 
pure seed in a small bottle with the impurities in another 
bottle of similar shape and size. The names of the foreign 
seeds may be learned from some botanist or experiment 
station.* 

* The following- standards of J>urity zxe. adopted by the U, S. Depart- 
ment of Agriculture : 
Asparagus, beans, buckwheat, cabbage, cauliflower, celery, 



SEEDS. 107 

After determining the per cent of pure seed in a sample, 
the gcr?ninative ability should be ascertained. This is even 
more important. One can judge fairly well of the purity 
of seed by a casual inspection, but no one can tell by its 
looks whether a seed is capable of sprouting or not. Con- 
sidering the great amount of labor and expense involved, 
it is surprising that so few farmers test their vegetable and 
field seeds before they are sown. 

Even fresh seed is sometimes incapable of germination 
through improper care in harvesting or cleaning. Nor 
can fresh seed be told by its appearance with certainty. 
Add to this the fact that old seed is frequently offered for 
sale, and there is no lack of reason for testing the sprout- 
ing capacity of the seed one intends to sow. 

If the heat and moisture are properly controlled, seed- 
testing will be found a very simple matter. Seventy to 
eighty degrees Fahrenheit must be maintained during the 
day, with a fall of not more than twenty degrees at night, 
and the seed must be kept constantly damp, but not wet. 
A good plan is to plant a hundred seeds of average quality 
— that is, an average number of large, small, plump, and 
shrivelled ones, etc. — in moist soil in a box or in a small 
flower-pot which is set inside of a large pot also containing 
soil. Water as needed is added from time to time in the 
larger pot and the whole is kept covered so as to prevent 
evaporation and sudden cooling. When the seeds begin 
to come up, the pots should be exposed to the light. After 
about two weeks for most seeds the seedlings are counted 
and the percentage of sprouts ascertained. If the soil has 
been previously heated to kill all weed seeds, and proper 
precautions have been taken, such a test will give a good 
indication of the value of the seed. To make sure, a dupli- 

collards, Indian corn, cow pea, cucumber, eggplant, lettuce, 
melon, millet (common and pearl), oats, okra, onion, peas, 
pumpkin, radish, rutabaga, salsify, squash, tomato, turnip, 

vetch (hairy) 99 per cent, 

Alfalfa, beets, crimson clover, red clover, cotton, Kafir corn, 

parsley.. 98 " " 

Parsnip gj " »' 

Hungarian brome grass, carrot, white clover, alsike clover. . .95 " '* 
June grass, poa compressa go " " 



108 AGRICULTURE. 

cate lot of one hundred seeds should be tested at the same 
time under the same conditions and the results compared. 
If the variation exceeds ten p^r cent, the tests should be 
repeated until the source of error is discovered. Grasses 
and very fine seed will require more care than other kinds. 
Such seed should be barely covered with soil, while in all 
cases too deep planting must be avoided. In testing grass 
seeds, except timothy, care must be taken that the heavier 
chaff, which looks like good seed, but does not contain a 
grain, is not counted with the good seed. Every seed 
should be gently pressed with the finger-nail or with a 
small penknife to determine whether or not it contains a 
grain. The chaff should count as impurity, but should not 
be tested for germination. Some hard-coated seeds may 
be soaked a few hours in warm water, but as a usual thing 
it is better not to do so. 

Seeds of clovers and most vegetables can be easily ger- 
minated between two folds of damp flannel cloth placed be- 
tween two plates. Such tests permit frequent inspection 
of the seed, which should be thrown away as fast as it 
germinates, count being kept of the same. Damp blotters, 
porous dishes, and various kinds of especially prepared 
germinating apparatus are sometimes used in seed-testing. 
The amount of moisture to be given varies greatly with 
the variety of seed and can be best learned by experience. 
In general, quick-sprouting seeds, like clover, cabbage, 
radish, etc., will stand more moisture than those varieties 
which sprout more slowly. 

To make sure of the vitality of seed it is better to test it 
in the soil, as previously suggested, and also by the cloth 
or j)late method. Soil tests should be continued a few days 
longer than those made between cloth or blotters. There 
is considerable difference of opinion as to the standards of 
germination to which first-class seed should attain. Those 
in use at present by the U. S. Department of Agriculture 
are given in the first table on page 109. While first-class 
seecis should reach the standards referred to, it may be said 
that seed which falls as much as ten per cent below them 
need not be rejected as bad. 



SEEDS. 



100 



TABLE OF GER3IINATION STANDARDS. 

(U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.) 



Seed. 




Seed. 


90 
80 
94 
92 

50 
75 
75 
80 
50 
80 
80 
50 
90 
90 
90 
85 
90 
90 
90 
90 
90 
95 
90 


Seed. 




Asparagus 

Beans, bush 


85 
95 
95 
150 

tl 

95 
95 
95 

85 
65 

^5 
85 
go 
80 
90 

IJ 

95 
90 
90 
90 
qo 


Cucumber 

Egg-plant 


Okra 


90 
85 
75 
75 
98 

85 
90 

95 
95 
85 

il 
11 

90 
90 
90 

88 


Onion 

Parsley ... 

Parsnip 

Peas 


Beet 


Gherkin 

Grasses: 

Canada blue 

Fowl meadow. . . 

Johnson 

Hungarian brome 

Kentucky blue. . 

Meadow fescue.. 

Orchard 

Texas blue 

Timothy 

Kafir corn 




Broccoli 

Brussels sprouts. . 

Buckwheat 

Cabbage 


Pepper 

Pumpkin. 

Radish... 

Rape 

Rhubarb 

Rutabaga 

Salsify 

Sorghum 


Carrot .. . 


Cauliflower 


Celery 

Chicory 

Clover alfalfa . . 


Spurry 

Squash 




Kohl-rabi 


" red 


Leek 


Sunflower 

Tobacco 


" scarlet 


Lettuce , 




Lupin, yellow 

Melon .. 

Millet, common — 

" pearl 

Mustard 

Oats 




90 
95 
90 
95 


Collards 


Turnip 

Vetch, hairy 

Wheat . . 






Cowpea . .... 


Cress 





NUMBER, WEIGHT, COST OF GRASS SEEDS, AND 
AMOUNT TO SOW PER ACRE. 

(Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture ) 

[Columns i, 2, 3, and 4 are compiled from " The Best Forage Plants," by 
6tebler and Schroeter. The figures in column 5 are obtained by multi- 
plying the amount of standard quality of seed required (col. 2) by the retail 
price quoted in N. Y. catalogues. The weight of 10,000,000 grains (col. 6) 
is obtained by dividing this quantity by the number of seeds in one pound 
(col. i).] 



Name. 



Redtop (Agrostis alba) . . . 
Reed canary grass (Pha- 

laris arundinacea) .. .. 
Smooth -stalked meadow 

grass (Poa pratensis) .. 
Rough -stalked meadow 

grass (Poa trivialis) .... 



(i) 



<L> tfl u 



603,000 
660,000 

2,400,000 

3,000. 



(2) 
^ -a 



° ^ ,A 

a ^S: 



9-7 

21 .0 

17-5 

I ' 5 



■j^ — O v 
o t) <u ^ 
I! o 3 bJO 

< .Q a 



7.00 
12.00 
8.40 
8.75 



(4) 



^03 



8-32 
44-48 
12-20 
11-17 



(5) 


(6) 


Is 


^8^ 

f 0'"^- 


$1.45 


16.58 


7-35 


i5-'5 


2.10 


4.17 


4.88 


3-33 



110 



AGRICULTURE. 



NUMBER, WEIGHT, COST OF GRASS SEEDS, AND 
AMOUNT TO SOW PER ACJX^— Continued. 



Name. 



Sheep's fescue (Festuca 

ovina) 

Various-leaved fescue (Fes- 
tuca heterophylla) 

Creeping fescue (Festuca 

rubra) 

Awnless brome grass (Bro- 

mus inermis) 

Perennial rye grass(Lolium 

perenne) ... 

Italian rye grass (Lolium 

italicum) 

Orchard grass (Dactylis 

glomerata) 

Meadow fescue (Festuca 

pratensis) 

Meadow oat grass (Arrhe- 

natlierum avenaceuni). . . 
Yellow oat grass (Trisetum 

fiavescens) 

Velvet grass (^Holcus lana- 

tus) 

Timothy(Phleum pratense) 
Meadow foxtail (Alopecu- 

rus pratensis) 

Vernal grass (Anthoxan- 

thum odoratum) 

Crested dog's tail (Cynosu- 

rus cristatus) 

Alsike clover (Trifolium 

hybridum) 

Sainfoin (Onobrychis sa- 

tiva) . 

Red clover (Trifolium pra- 
tense) 

White clover (Trifolium 

repens) 

Common kidney vetch (An- 

thyllus vulneraria) 

Alfalfa, or lucern (Medi- 

cago sativa) 

Trefoil (Medicagolupulina) 
Bird's-foot trefoil (Lotus 

corniculatus) 

Officinal goat's rue (Galega 

officinalis) ... 



(i) 

— (U 
XI C 3 



400,000 
600,000 
137,000 
336,800 
285,000 

579,500 

318,200 

159,000 

2,045,000 



,304,000 
,i7P,50o 

907,000 

924,000 

,127,000 

707,000 

22,500 

279,000 

740,000 

154,000 

209,500 
328,000 

375,000 

62,000 



o c h 
2 Jfc >. 



(3) (4) 

O.HOt/)| ^^ 






12.60 
19-50 
13.00 

35 -60 
38.50 
32.40 



10-15 
10-14 

18-30 
12-24 
12-16 
12-26 
34.30 10 

4-64 5-5 

6.5 
14.00 

6.21 

7.80 

13-50 

9.00 94-100 



60.84^ 
15.84 
7.50 



1 5 . 00 60-64 



22.00 61-63 
14.75 64-66 



4.67 
6.90 



(5) 



8.50 
8.80 

4-95 

356 

5.60 

7.80 

12.60 

24 ■ 65 

4.40 
1.50 

6.21 

15.00 

7.50 

1.60 

6.2s 

2.50 

2.94 

4-58 



3-25 
2.16 



(6) 



•^ Q.E 



so 



1485 

25 00 

16.67 

72.99 

29.70 

3510 

17-25 

31-42 

62.89 

4.89 

7.66 
8.54 

11.02 

10 82 

8.87 

14.14 

444 44 

35-84 

13-51 

67.15 

48.56 
30.48 

26.66 

161.29 



* Unshelled, 



SEEDS. Ill 

NOTES ON ADAPTABILITY AND USES OP PRE- 
CEDING GRASSES AND CLOVERS. 

No. I. Requires moist climate or damp soil. Best propa- 
gated by transplanting small turf cuttings in autumn. 
Valuable for late pasturage or lawns in the New England 
and Middle States. Use 5-10 per cent in mixtures. 

No. 2. Adapted to stiff, wet lands and flooded fields. 
Requires moisture. Valuable hay when cut young, and 
well suited for binding loose banks near running water or 
for forming a firm sod on marshy ground. 

No. 3. Grows best on strongly calcareous soils. Well 
adapted for pasture, and makes a good bottom grass for 
meadows. An excellent lawn grass. 

No. 4. Should be sown only on moist, fertile, and shel- 
tered soils in mixtures. 

No. 5. Light, dry soils, especially those which are poor, 
shallow, and silicious. Valuable bottom grass and for sheep 
pastures. Sown only in mixtures. 

No. 6. Best on moist, low lands containing humus and 
sandy loams. Withstands drought; useful in pasture; un- 
important for hay. Alone it makes no continuous turf. 

No. 7. Valuable pasture or bottom grass. Withstands 
drought; endures both cold and shade. On poor land, es- 
pecially moist sands and railway banks, serves to bind the 
soil. Product small. 

No. 8. Valuable for light soils, especially in regions sub- 
ject to extremes of heat or long periods of drought. Used 
alone or in mixtures for permanent meadows and pastures. 

No. 9. Excellent and lasting pasture grass for heavy soils 
in moist, cool climates. On light, dry soils disappears after 
the second year. Rarely sown alone. 

No. 10. Excellent for rich and rather moist lands. Re- 
garded in Europe as one of the best for hay. Lasts only 
two or three years. 

No. II. Grows well on any soil, excepting that which is 
very wet; withstands shade. Affords a large amount of 
aftermath. Valuable alike for hay and pasturage. 

No. 12. Thrives in either dry or wet soils. Valuable hay 
ot pasture grass. 



112 AGRICULTURE. 

No. 13. Thrives on moist, loamy sands or light clays 
which are not too moist, and marls. Spring most favorable 
seed-time. Valuable in the South for hay and winter 
pasture. 

No. 14. Valuable for temporary or permanent pastures. 
Thrives on marly or calcareous soil, in all light land rich in 
humus. 

No. 15. Sometimes sown on light, thin soils unsuited 
for more valuable sorts. Rarely used excepting in mix» 
tures. 

No. 16. Best known and most extensively cultivated for 
hay. Sown alone or mixed with redtop or clover. Suc- 
ceeds best on moist loams or clays. On dry ground the 
yield is light. 

No. 17. Endures cold. Likes strong soil, stiff loam, or 
clay. One of the best grasses for land under irrigation. 
Very early. Two to four pounds in mixtures for permanent 
pastures. 

No. 18. Grows on almost any kind of soil; sown only in 
mixtures, i to 2 pounds, with permanent pasture or meadow 
grasses. 

No. ig. Especially adapted for loams, light clays, marls, 
and moist, loamy sands. Moist climates are most suitable. 
Withstands drought and thrives well in shade. Nutritive 
value high. Used in mixtures to form bottom grass either 
in pasture or hay. 

No. 20. Grows on strongest clay or peaty soil; peculiarly 
adapted to damp ground. Bears heavy frosts without 
injury. Sown in August or February. 

No. 21. Requires good and open subsoil, free from water. 
Sown alone, from end of March to beginning of May. 

No 22. Succeeds best in rich, loamy soil, on good clays, 
and on soils of an alluvial nature. A standard fodder 
plant. 

No. 23. Thrives on mellow land containing lime, and on 
all soils rich in humus. Resists drought. Generally used 
in mixtures for pastures or lawns. 

No. 24.. Cultivated for grazing; on warm soils, if manured 



SEEDS. 



113 



and of proper depth. Hardy; resists drought. Sheep, 
goats, and horned cattle eat it greedily. 

No. 25. Grows well on any calcareous soil having a per- 
meable subsoil. Especially adapted to the warm and dry 
regions of the West and Southwest. Requires irrigation. 

No. 26. Any soil containing sufficient moisture and lime 
is suitable. Most successful on clay marls. Cultivated 
only where the better kinds of clover cannot be grown. 

No. 27. Thrives on dry or moist, sandy or clayey soils. 
Well suited to dry lands at high elevations, though poor. 

No. 28. Excellent fodder plant for warm, sheltered situ- 
ations. Thrives only in deep soil, and when subsoil is not 
wet. 



VITALITY OF SEEDS IF PROPERLY KEPT. 

(McKerrow.) 

5 years Wheat.- 2 years 

5 " Buckwheat 2 " 

5 " Corn 2 " 

3 " Timothy 2 " 

3 " Rye 2 " 

3 " Flax 2 " 

Millet 2 " 

Orchard-grass 2 " 



Turnips 

Rape 

Pumpkin 

Peas 

Beans '. 

Clover 

Oats 3 

Barley 3 



114 



AGRICULTURE. 



SEEDSMEN'S CUSTOMARY WEIGHTS PER BUSHEL OF 
SEEDS. (E. Brown.) 



Kind of Seed. 



Alfalfa 

Amber cane 

Bent grass: 

Creeping 

Rhode Island. . 
Bermuda grass. . . 
Bird's-foot clover. 

Bitter vetch 

Blue grass: 

Canada 

Kentucky 

Texas 

Broad bean 

Brome, awnless. . 

Broom com 

Bur clover: 

Hulled 

Unhulled 

Spotted 

Castor bean 

Clover: 

Alsike 

Crimson? 

Egyptian 

Mammoth 

Red 

White 

Cowpea 

Crested dog's tail. 
Fescue: 

Hard 

Meadow 

Red 

Sheep's 

Tall 

Various leaved. 

Flat pea 

Flax. 

Hemp 

Japan clover: 

Htilled 

Unhulled 

Johnson grass. . . , 

Kafir com 

Lentil 

Lupine, white. . . , 
Meadow foxtail. . . 
Meadow grass: 

Fowl. 

Rough stalked. 

Wood 



Pounds 
per 

Bushel. 

60 
45-60 



lo-is 
24-36 

60 

60 

14-20 
14-30 

14 
50-60 
10-14 
45-60 



60 
46-60 

60 

60 

60 

60 

60 

60 
56-60 
14-30 

12-16 
14-24 
12-15 
12-16 
14-24 
14-18 
50-60 
48-56 
40-60 

60 
18-25 
14-28 
50-60 

60 

50-60 

7-14 

11-14 
14-20 
14-24 



Kind of Seed. 



Millet: 

Barnyard 

Broom corn 

Common 

German 

Golden wonder 

Hungarian 

Pearl 

Milo maize 

Oat grass: 

Tall 

Yellow 

Orange cane 

Orchard grass 

Pea: 

Field 

Garden, smooth 

Garden, wrinkled 

Peanut 

Rape, winter 

Red top: 

Chaff 

Fancy 

Rescue grass 

Rice 

Rye grass: 

English 

Italian 

Sainfoin 

Serradella 

Soy bean 

Spelt 

Sunflower 

Sweet clover: 

Hulled 

Unhulled 

Sweet com (ace. to var.). 
Sweet vernal, perennial . . 

Teosinte 

Timothy 

Velvet bean 

Vetch: 

Hairy 

Spring 

Water grass, large 

Wild rice 

Yellow trefoil 



SEEDS. 



115 



WEIGHT AND SIZE OP GARDEN SEEDS. 

(ViLMORIN.) 



Name. 



Anise 

Asparagus bean . 

Bean 

Beet 

Borecole 

Broccoli 

Cabbage 

Caraway 

Carrot : 

With spines. . . 

Without spines 

Cauliflower 

Celery 

Chicory 

Cress, American.. 

com. garden 

Cucumber, com. . 

globe.. 

snake. 

Dill 

Eggplant 

Endive 

Gourds, fancy. . . 

Hop 

Kohlrabi 



Wt.ofa 


No. of 


Qt. of 


Seeds 


Seeds, 


m a 


Oz. 


Grain. 


II. 7 


13 


29.9 


32-42 


24-3 


*5 


9-7 


3 


27.2 


19 


27.2 


24 


27.2 


19 


16.3 


23 


9-3 


45 


14.0 


62 


27.2 


24 


18.6 


162 


15-5 


45 


21 .0 


62 


28.4 


29 


19.4 


2 


19.4 


6 


17.5 


3 


II. 7 


58 


19.4 


16 


13.2 


39 


17-5 


I 


9-7 


13 


27.2 


19 



Name. 



Leek 

Lettuce 

Maize 

Muskmelon 

Mustard, black.. 

white . 

Nasturtium, tall. 

dwarf. 

Okra 

Onion 

Pea 

gray or field. 

Peanut 

Pepper 

Pumpkin 

Purslane 

Radish 

Rhubarb 

Salsify 

Spinach 

Squash 

Tomato 

Turnip 

Watermelon. . . . 



Wt.ofa 

Qt. of 

Seeds, 

Oz. 



21.4 
16.7 
24.9 
14.0 
26. 2 
29.1 

13-2 

23-3 
24.1 
19.4 

27.2-31. 

26.4-31. 



8.9 
19.8 
16.7 
II. 7 
26.0 
17.9 



No. of 

Seeds 

in a 

Grain. 

26 

52 

t2-3 

4 

45 

13 
t4-5 



16 
ti-4 
t3-5 

tl-2 

10 

t2 
162 

8 
3 
6 
7 
6 



26 



19 

29 
t3-4 



* In 100 grains. t In 10 grains. 

AVERAGE TIME REQUIRED FOR GARDEN 
SEEDS TO GERMINATE. (Bailey.) 



Name. 


Days. 


Bean 


6—10 


Beet 


7-10 


Cabbage 


6-10 


Carrot 


12-18 


Cauliflower. . . 


6-10 


Celery 


10-20 



Name. 


Days. 


Corn 


5-8 


Cucumber 


6-10 


Endive 


5-10 


Lettuce 


6-8 


Onion 


7-10 


Pea 


6-10 



Name. 



Parsnip 

Pepper. 

Radish. 

Salsify. , 

Tomato. 

Turnip. 



Days. 



:o— 20 
9-13 
3-6 

7-12 
6-12 

4-8 



YIELD OF SEEDS FROM AN ACRE. (Bailey.) 





Good 

Crop 

( = 20 bu. 

Wheat). 


Maximum 

Crop 
( = 50 bu. 
Wheat). 


Yield Seedsmen 
would Figure in 
Making Contracts 
lor Large Quan- 
tities. 


Bean. 


600 lbs. 
250 
ISO 
125 

900 
100 
100 

1000-2500 
(ace. to var.) 
100 
150 


1500 lbs. 

800 

700 

600 
2500 

400 

700 
2500-4000 

400 
1 000 


500 lbs. 
200 
1 00 


Cabbage (2 years) 

Cucumber 






Pea 




Squash, winter 

summer 

Sweet com 


100 
100 
800—2000 


Tomato 




W^atermelon. . 


100 









116 



AGKICULTURE. 



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AGRICULTURE. 



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WEEDS. 119 



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120 



AGRICULTURE. 



o § 
•d rt 

I 


3 '^ 
sis 


weather; per- 
sistent cultiv. 

Sowing clean 


seeds; burning; 
pasturing. 

Alternate cultiv. 
and heavy crop- 
ping. 

Cultiv., with hoed 
crops. 

Prev. of seeding; 
cultivation. 

do. 

do. 

Cultiv. ; increased 
fertilization ; re- 
seeding meadows. 


Place of 
Growth and 
Products In- 
jured. 


Meadows; pas- 
tures. 

Open prairie ; 
burs injurious 
in wool. 

Oatfields. 

Every whe re; 
dairy prod- 
ucts; grain. 

Grain fie Ids and 
vineyards. 

Meadows ; pas- 
tures. 

do. 

Waste land ; 

pastures.* . 
Clay soil ; dry 

meadows and 

pastures. 


Methods of 
Propagation 
and Distribu- 
tion of Seed. 


Seeds; animals; 
wind. 

Running root- 
stocks ; seeds ; 
burs carried by 
animals. 

Seeds, in seed 
oats. 

Bulblets; seeds. 

Seeds ; carried 

bv animals. 
Seeds. 

do. 

do. 

Seeds; in hay 
and clover 
seeds. 


It 


July to Nov. 
Aug. to Nov. 

July to Sept. 

Aug. to Sept. 

Aug. to Nov. 
July to Sept. 

Aug. to Oct. 
Aug. to Nov. 
July to Oct. 




Me. to Va. 

and Ind. 
Minn, to Cal. 

do. 

Penn. to S. C. 

N. J. to Tex. 
Me. to Ohio. 

Me. to Wis. 
Tex. to Ga. 
Md. to Mich. 


w- 

Technical Name. 


Daucus carota.2 

Glycyrrhiza lepido- 
ta.3 

Avena fatua.i 

Allium vineale.3 

Eleusine indica.i 
Rudbeckia hirta.2 

Rumex obtusifo- 

lius.^ 
Helenium tenuifoli- 

um.i 
Melilotus officinalis.! 


o 

a 

i 


n 


1 


Wild onion, field garlic, 
wild garlic. 

Yard grass, wire grass, 
crab grass. 

Yellow daisy, brown- 
eyed Susan, nigger- 
head. 

Yellow dock, broad- 
leafed dock. 

Yellow dog fennel. . . . 

Yellow melilot ; yellow 
sweet clover. 



EN"EMIES OF FARM CROPS. 121 



VIII. ENEMIES OF FARM CROPS. 

TREATMKXTS FOR INJURIOUS INSECTS AXD 
FUNGUS DISEASES OF PLANTS. 

By the late Prof. E. S. Goff, of Wisconsin Experiment Station. 
The value of the following treatments for preventing injury 
to crops from insects and fungus diseases has been proved by 
abundant experience. It is essential that the treatments be 
given pj'omptly and thorotighly. In the case of fungus dis- 
eases, it is generally essential that the applications be made 
before the disease appears, since they are preventive, rather than 
curative. The treatments considered most important are printed 
in italics. As a rule, those not so printed need be given only 
'.n seasons or localities in which the attack is serious.* 

Formulas. 

No. I. Bordeaux Mixture. — Place4 pounds of copper sulfate 
in a cloth sack and suspend this over night in a wood vessel 
containing4gallons of water, immersing the sack. In another 
wood vessel slake 6 pounds of fresh lime in as many gallons oi 
water. When the lime is cool, pour it and the copper sulfate 
solution into a barrel and add enough water to make 45 gallons. 
Apply at once with a force-pump, with spraying nozzle, stir- 
ring frequently during the application. 

No. 2. Aimjioniacal Copper Carbonate. — Dissolve I ounce of 
copper carbonate in 3 pints of strong ammonia and add this 
solution to 25 gallons of water. Apply as in No. i. No stir- 
ring is required. 

No. 3. Copper Sulfate Solution. — Dissolve, as directed in No, 
I, I pound of copper sulfate in 15 gallons of water. Apply 
as in No 2. 

No. 4. .Stir 4 ounces of Paris green in 40 gallons of water, 
and add \ pound of fresh lime, slaked in 2 quarts of hot 
water. Apply as in No. i. 

No. 5. Bordeaux Mixture i^o. i), with Paris green added at 
the rate of i ounce to 10 gallons. Apply as in No. i. 

* The following scheme for treating crops is after a plan published by 

the late Mr. E. G. Lodemann of Cornell University, in Trans. N. Y. State 
Agricultural Society for 1893, pp. 176-179. 



122 



AGRICULTURE. 



No. 6. London purple ^ 4 ounces, very thoroughly mixed with 
25 pounds of land plaster. Apply with a sprinkling-box. 

No. 7. Mix I ounce of fresh powdered zvhite hellebore in 3 
gallons of water. Apply at once with force-pump or sprinkling 
pot. 

No. 8. Kerosene Emulsion. — Dissolve \ pound hard, or I 
quart of soft soap in 2 quarts of boiling water; place i pint 
of kerosene in a tin can; pour the boiling-hot solution into 
this, cork, and shake rapidly for i minute. Before using, 
dilute with its own bulk of warm soft-water. Apply as in 
No. 2. 

No. 9. Mix I pound of fresh Fyrethrum powder with an 
equal bulk of air-slaked lime in a bottle or tin can; cork 
tightly and leave 24 hours before use. Apply in still air, 
with sprinkling-box or powder-bellows. 

No. 10. Air-slaked lime applied with a sprinkling-box. 

No. II. Cut small cards from thin tarred paper, slit one side 
to the centre, and make a short cross-cut near the end of the 
slit, as in drawing. 




No. 12. Corrosive Sublimate Solution. — Diss£)lve l\ ounces 
of corrosive sublimate in 2 gallons of hot water, and pour 
i\\\% solution into 15 gallons of cold water. Use wood, 
cHithen, or glass vessels. For potato scab the formaldehyd 
treatment is preferable (see p. 107). 

No. 13. Fotassiufn Sulfid Solution. — Dissolve \ ounce of 
potassium sulfid (liver of sulfur, sulfuret of potassium) 
in I quart of warm (not hot) water, and add this solution to 
3 quarts of cold water. Apply as in No. 2. 



ENEMIES OF FARM CROPS. 



123 






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126 



AaRICULTURE. 



A CHEAP ORCHARD-SPRAYING OUTFIT. 

(U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.) 

Spraying to control various insect pests, particularly those 
of the orchard and garden, has reached so satisfactory and 
inexpensive a basis that it is recognized by every progres- 
sive farmer as a nec- 
essary feature of the 
year's operations, and 
in the case of the apple, 
pear, and plum crops 
the omission of such 
treatment means seri- 
ous loss. The conse- 
quent demand for 
spraying apparatus has 
been met by all the 
leading pump manufac- 
turers of this country, 
and ready-fitted appa- 
ratus, consisting of 
pump, spray tank or 
barrel, and nozzle with 
hose, are on the market 
in numerous styles and 
at prices ranging from 
$20 upward. The cost of a spraying outfit for orchard 
work may, however, be considerably reduced by purchasing 
merely the pump and fixtures, and mounting them at home 
on a strong barrel. An apparatus of this sort, representing 
a style that has proven very satisfactory in practical ex- 
perience, is illustrated in the accompanying figure. It is 
merely a strong pump with an air-chamber to give a steady 
stream, provided with two discharge hose-pipes. One of 
these enters the barrel and keeps the water agitated and 
the poison thoroughly intermixed, and the other and longer 
one is the spraying hose and terminates in the nozzle. The 
spraying-hose should be about 20 feet long, and may be 
fastened to a light pole, preferably of bamboo, to assist in 




Orchard-spraying Apparatus. 



EKEMTES OE FARM CROPS. 127 

directing the spray. The nozzle should be capabls of 
breaking the water up into a fine mist spray, so as to wet 
the plant completely with the least possible expenditure of 
liquid. The two more satisfactory nozzles are those of the 
Nivcr and the Vermorel type. A suitable pump w^ith nozzle 
and hose may be obtained of any pump nf>anufacturer or 
hardware dealer at a cost of from $13 to $15. If one with 
brass fittings be secured it will also serve for the application 
of fungicides. The outfit outlined above may be mounted 
on a cart or wagon, the additional elevation secured in this 
way facilitating the spraving of trees, or for more extended 
operations, the pump may be mounted on a large water 
tank. 

PREVENTION OF OAT-SMUT. (Goff.) 

The smut of oats, which causes an annual loss to the 
farmers of the United States amounting in the aggregate to 
millions of dollars, may be entirely prevented by treating 
the seed oats before sowing, at a cost for labor and materials 
which need not exceed five cents per acre of oats sown. 

Two methods of treatment have been found satisfactory. 
These we will call for convenience the Formaldehyd Treat' 
vient and the Hot-water Treatment. The first has the ad- 
vantage of being the simpler, but it requires a small cash 
outlay for materials. The second requires no materials or 
apparatus except what the farmer already has, unless it be 
a good thermometer. 

The Forjualdehyd Treatment. — Soak the seed oats one hour 
in a solution of formaldehyd, made by adding one ounce of 
formaldehyd to every 3I gallons of water. Place the water 
in a barrel, or other convenient vessel, add the formaldehyd 
to it, and pour in one and one-half bushels of seed oats for 
each 3^ gallons of the solution. At the end of one hour^ 
draw off or pour off the part of the solution that is not ab- 
sorbed by the oats, and spread the oats on a clean floor to 
dry. They should be shoveled over once or twice a day 
until dry enough to sow. 



128 AGRICULTURE. 

Formaldehyd is a liquid that may be purchased at drug- 
stores. Ask ior forty-per-cent formaldehyd. It costs from 
50 to 60 cents per pint, and a pint contains enough for about 
30 bushels of seed oats. It is sold in smaller quantities at 
10 cents per ounce. If formaldehyd is purchased in consid- 
erable quantities, it will be well to have the druggist weigh 
out one ounce in a small bottle, and then mark on the bottle 
the height to which the ounce reaches. This bottle may 
then be used as a measure in adding the formaldehyd to 
the water. 

The Hot-water Treatment consists in soaking the seed 
10 minutes in water at a temperature of 133° F. Heat the 
water in a large kettle, and close by sink a barrel in the 
ground to within a foot of the top. Pour a part of the hot 
water into the barrel, and take the temperature with a good 
thermometer. Then add either cold or hot water, stirring 
it in the mean time, until it shows a temperature of 138°. 
Put about a bushel of oats in a coarse gunnysack, tie this 
to one end of a pole and rest the pole over a post, thus mak- 
ing a lever, by which the sack of oats may be easily raised 
or lowered. Now dip the sack of oats into the water in the 
barrel. The water will be immediately cooled, and hot 
water must be added to keep the temperature about 133°. 
Let one person attend to the temperature, and another to 
handling the oats. Keep the oats moving in the barrel. 
Take them out at the end of 10 minutes, dip the sack at 
once in cold water, then spread on a clean floor to dry. 
Shovel them over three times a day for a few days, when 
they may be sown »with a force drill ; or in two or three 
hours they may be sown broadcast. As the oats absorb 
considerable water, it is necessary to sow about half a 
bushel more per acre than when untreated seed is used. 
This is on the basis of two and one-half bushels per acre. 
Two men in one day can treat enough seed to sow twe-nty 
acres. 

This treatment may also be applied with satisfactory 
results for the prevention of smut of other cereals than 
oats, and for prevention of potato-scab, as will be seen from 
the following article. 



ENEMIES OF FARM CROPS. 129 



THE FORMALDEHYD TREATMENT FOll THE 
PREVENTION OF THE SMUTS OF CEREAL 
GRAINS AND OF POTATO-SCAB. (Bolley ) 

For Wheat, Oats, Barley, and Alillet . — Use formalde- 
hyd (40 per cent solution) at the rate of i pound of 
the liquid to 45 or 50 gallons of water. Use any method 
of wetting the grain most suited to your means. Sprink- 
ling and shoveling is as effective as dipping, if carefully 
done. 

It is well to treat one day and allow the grain to remain 
piled up overnight, thus allowing the fumes of the solution 
to act throughout the pile. 

Cautions. — (i) In the case of oats or barley the wetting 
must be more thorough than in the case of wheat, so that 
the formaldehyd or gas may penetrate beneath the husks of 
the grain. 

(2) Do not allow wet grain to remain in a pile long 
enough to get hot. A very slight degree of fermentation 
may greatly reduce the yield. 

For Potato-scab. — Soak the tubers before cutting one hour 
and a half in a solution of formaldehyd at .he rate of one 
pound of the liquid to thirty gallons of water ; or in a 
solution of corrosive sublimate, using one pound of the 
chemical to each fifty gallons of water. 

Note : The potato-scab fungus lives from year to year in 
the soil and upon old vines. Hence it is wise to try to 
keep it off your lands, by treating all seed-tubers. (See 
Bull. 37, N. D. Experiment Station.) 



130 AGRICULTURE. 

FIGHTING THE CHINCH-BUG BY MEANS OP 
KEROSENE EMULSION. (Goff ) 

Experiments have established the fact that with thorough 
work according to the directions given below the kerosene 
emulsion will prevent the invasion of cornfields by chinch- 
bugs, even though the bugs appear in great numbers. 

How to Make and Apply the Kerosene Emulsion. — Slice half 
a pound of common bar soap, put it in a kettle with one gal- 
lon of soft water, and boil until dissolved ; put two gallons 
of kerosene in a churn or stone jar, and to it add the boiling- 
hot soap solution ; churn from twenty to thirty minutes, 
when the whole will appear creamy. If properly made, no 
oil will separate out when a few drops of the emulsion are 
placed on a piece of glass. To each gallon of the emulsion 
add eight gallons of vv^ater and stir. Apply with a sprink- 
ling-pot. 

Every farmer should learn to make this emulsion, as it is 
a most useful insecticide. It is especially valuable for kill- 
ing lice on cattle and hogs. Paris green will not kill chinch- 
bugs. 

The bugs will be very likely to enter cornfields border- 
ing grainfields, after the grain is cut. Before they have 
had time to do this plough a deep furrow along the side of 
the field they will enter, and throw into it stalks of green 
corn. When the bugs have accumulated on the corn, 
sprinkle with the emulsion. Put in fresh stalks and sprinkle 
whenever the bugs accumulate. If they break over the 
barrier, as they probably will, run a few furrows a few 
rows back in the field, and repeat. When they have at- 
tacked stalks of standing corn, destroy by sprinkling. 

If the remedy is tried, it should be used persistently. To 
kill one lot of bugs and then stop will do little or no good. 
When the bugs threaten to destroy as much as five or ten 
acres, it will pay for one or two men to devote their whole 
time to the warfare, Onlv a part of each day, however, 
will be needed. Some corn will be \a'=* at best, but the most 
of the field should be saved 



F0KE3TRT. 131 

IX. FORESTRY. 

FORESTRY FOR FARMERS. 

By Dr. B. E. Fernow, late Director of the New York State College of 
Forestry. 

There has been much talk about forestry in the U. S., but 
there has been little application of the teachings of that 
science. This is easily explained in so far as the lumber- 
men are concerned, who are in the business of making 
money by cutting the virgin woods, similar to the mining 
of ore, but it is less intelligible with the farmer who is pre- 
sumed to be in the business of making money by the pro- 
duction and harvesting of crops, which he grows on the 
soil of his farm. 

That his wood-lot could and should by him be also treated 
as a crop seems rarely to have entered his mind. Whether 
he starts out, as in the prairie portions of the State, by 
planting a grove, or whether he cuts his wood from the 
virgin growth which he left after clearing enough for field 
and meadow, in either case he should fully realize that he 
is dealing with a valuable crop, which requires and will 
pay for the attention and application of knowledge in its 
management, such as a true husbandman would give to it. 

The Wisconsin farmer, just as his neighbor in Minnesota, 
living in a State largely covered with timber of great value, 
has special reason to practise the principles of forestry in 
order to get the most out of this part of the property both 
for the present and the future. And those who are located 
in the prairie portions have no less need of maintaining a 
forest growth on some part of their farm as a matter of 
proper management of their resources. 

The first thing, as with every other crop, that will have to 
be decided is on what portions of the farm this wood-crop 
is best propagated. In deciding about the location of the 
wood-lot the farmer must keep in mind : 

I. That wood will grow on almost any soil, which is unfit 
for agricultural use ; that, although it grows best on the 



132 AGRICULTURE. 

best sites, it is to be mainly considered and used as a " stop- 
gap" to make useful those parts which would otherwise be 
waste. 

2. That a forest growth, besides furnishing useful material, 
is a condition of soil-cover which affects other conditions, 
namely, of climate and water-flow, and hence its location 
should be such as to secure the most favorable influence on 
these. 

3. That the wood-crop does not live on the soil, but on the 
air, enriching the soil in nutritive elements by its decaying 
foliage rather than exhausting it, and hence that no ma- 
nuring and no rotation of crops is necessary as in field 
crops; in other words, the location of the wood-crop can be 
made permanent. 

A wood growth should therefore be maintained on the 
farm : 

a. Wherever the ground is too wet or too dry, too thin 
or too rocky or too steep, for comfortable ploughing and for 
farm crops to do well, or for pasturage to last long, or, in 
general, where the ground is unfit for field and meadow. 

b. On the highest portions of the farm, the tops of hills 
and also in belts along the hillsides, so as to interrupt con- 
tinuous slopes, which might give rise to such a rush of 
surface-waters as to gully the ground and make it unfit for 
field crops or pasture ; the gentler slopes which are liable 
to washing should at least be kept in grass or terraced for 
crops to prevent the rush of surface-waters. 

c. Along watercourses, where narrower or wider belts of 
timber should be maintained to prevent undermining of 
banks and washing of soil into the streams if ploughed too 
close to the border ; the shade of a forest growth would 
also check rapid evaporation of smaller watercourses. 

d. Wherever the protection by a wind-break against cold 
or hot winds is desirable, for which purpose the timber belt 
is of more far-reaching effect than the wind-break of a single 
row of trees ; the reduced evaporation from the fields due 
to this protection has been known to increase the yield of 
field crops by as much as 25 per cent. 

e. On all unsightly places, which impair the general 



POHESTRY. 133 

aspect of the farm — and there are few farms without these 
— a few trees, a small grove, will add to the thrifty appear- 
ance of the farm, make useful the otherwise waste spots, 
ai.d serve as shelter to grazing cattle, etc. 

Altogether, the farmer should realize that husbandry of 
soil and water is the secret of future success, and that 
successful water management is best attained by the main- 
tenance of properly located and well-managed forest areas. 

There is much extravagant talk about the influence of 
forests on climate and on rainfall especially. We have but 
little definite knowledge on these subjects, but it takes no 
expert, only a little observation, to appreciate the effects of 
a wind-breaking timber belt on one's own feeling, and it 
takes but little reasoning to appreciate that the field crop 
in the shelter of the timber belt participates in this feeling. 
The dry winds are the great bane of field crops in the West, 
because they dissipate the moisture ; a timber belt breaks 
their force and reduces thereby their evaporating power. 

Just so it takes no great philosopher to see that when 
rain falls on naked ground it compacts that ground and by 
and by prevents itself from penetrating; the water is forced 
to drain off superficially and rapidly, instead of sinking into 
the ground and remaining there for the use of field crops. 
And that.the washing and gullying of the soil is also a result 
of this rushing off of surface-waters, due to the clearing 
away of its plant-cover, requires no wise man to point out ; 
every farmer experiences it more or less every year. 

That any one farmer's neglect or the devastation of any 
small part of the forest growth should have an influence on 
the rainfall or climate of the whole country nobody should 
claim; but the conditions surrounding each particular farm, 
its local climate, soil, and water conditions, are changed, 
and finally the aggregate changes make themselves felt over 
the whole state. 

Now as to the management of the wood-lot a few hints 
may be acceptable. The farmer may not necessarily employ 
the finer methods of managing the wood-crop, but by the 
mere application of common sense and a little knowledge 
of tree-life he may do better than he does at present. 



134 AGRICULTURE. 

He should at least observe the following rules : 

1. Fire should be carefully kept out of the wood-lot. 
for it has in no way a beneficial effect. It kills not only the 
undergrowth, which is desirable because it helps to shade 
the soil, and injures, if it does not kill, the young tiee 
growth, which is to take the place of the older growth, but 
the worst effect is that it consumes the vegetable mould 
which has accumulated by the fall and decay of leaves, 
twigs, and other vegetation, and which forms the manure, 
the fertility, of the soil. Fire is to be used only when 
through bad management or otherwise a dense undesirable 
undergrowth has come in, which it is too expensive to re- 
move in other ways when the time for natural reproduction 
has come or planting is to be done. It must then be used 
with caution in early spring or late fall, before the brush is 
too dry, when the fire will smoulder rather than burn 
fiercely and can be kept within bounds. 

2. Cattle must be kept out where young forest growth is 
to be fostered. Sheep and goats especially are of no benefit 
to wood-crops, but horses and cattle may be allowed to 
browse through the wood-lot where the young growth has 
passed out of their reach. Pigs are a benefit by working 
over the ground and thereby burying seeds, especially 
acorns ; but after the seed is so brought under ground 
where a young crop is expected to be reared next year they 
must be kept out. Altogether, the cattle and farm animals 
should be kept where you want them, and not where you 
do not want them. Sometimes, however, the roaming of 
cattle may be beneficial by keeping down too dense im- 
penetrable underbrush in young sapling growth. 

It is better to so cut and manage the old timber that a 
desirable new growth will spring up than to cut clean and 
replant. Planting should be done only where there is no 
desirable natural tree giowth. Hence where there is a well- 
established wood-lot, the whole management of the crop 
consists in proper cutting. 

How this is best done cannot be described readily within 
the short space of this article, but every farmer who is 
interested in learning the principles of using the axe to 



FORESTRY. 



135 



advantage in reproducing a wood crop or how to establish 
a wood-lot can obtain from the U. S. Department of Agr'i- 
culture, free of charge, a pamphlet entitled " Forestry for 
Farmers," in which in plain language is discussed in detail 
how trees and forests grow, how to start a wood-crop, and 
how to manage the wood-lot. 

It does not exhaust the subject, but merely teaches the 
first steps, and the thinking farmer will find his way of step- 
ping farther. 



NUMBER OF TREES ON AN ACRE. (Egleston.) 

The number of trees needed to plant an acre of ground, 
at various distances apart, is as. follows: 



2 ft. apart each way io,8go 

by 2 ft 7,260 

apart each way 4,840 
2,722 



1,742 
1,210 

680 
435 



ft. apart each way 



302 
200 

135 

no 

90 

70 

50 



Rows six feet apart, and trees one foot apart in the row, 
7260 trees per acre. 

Rows eight feet apart, and one foot apart in the row, 
5445 trees per acre. 

Rows ten feet apart, and one foot apart in the row, 4356 
trees per acre. 

One mile of wind-breaks or shelter-belt requires 5280 
trees, or cuttings for a single row one foot apart in the row. 



136 



AGRICULTURE. 



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FORESTRY. 



139 



STATES AND TERRITORIES OBSERVING ARBOR 
DAY, WITH DATES. (U. S. Department of Agriculture.) 



States. 


Year of 
First Ob- 
servance. 


Time of Observance. 




1887 
1890-91 

1886 
1885 
1887 
1886 
1887 
1886 
1888 

1884 

1887 

1886 
1888-89 
1887 
1889 
1886 
1885 
1876 
1802 
1886 
1887 
1872 
1887 
1886 
1884 
1890 
1889 
1893 
1884 
1882 

1889 
1887 
1887 
Uncertain. 
1884 
1875 

!885 
1892 
1883 

1889 
1888 
1892 


22d of February. 

First Friday after ist of February. 

Third Friday in April. 

In spring, at appointment of governor. 

January 8. 


Arizona 


Arkansas 

California 

Colorado 

Connecticut ...... 

Florida .... 




First Friday in December. 

Last Monday in April. 

Date fixed by governor and superintend- 
ent of public instruction. 

Date fixed by superintendent of public 
instruction. 
Do. 


Idaho 


Illinois 

Indiana 


Iowa 


Kansas 


Option of governor, usually in April. 
Do. 


Kentucky 


Louisiana 

Maine 

Maryland 


Option of parish boards. 
Option of governor. 
Option of fiovernor, in April. 
Last Saturday in April. 
Option of governor. 

Do. 
Option of board of education. 
First Friday after first Tuesday in April, 
Third Tuesday of April. 
22d of April. 
Option of governor. 


Massachusetts 


Minnesota 

Mississippi 

Missouri 




Nebraska 


Nevada 


New Hampshire... 

New Jersey 

New Mexico 

.New York 


Do. 
Option of governor, in April. 
Second Friday in March. 
First Friday after May i. 

6th of May. by proclamation of governor. 
In April, by proclamation of governor. 

Second Friday in April. 
Option of governor. 

Do. 
Variable. 

Option of governor. 

November, at designation of county sup- 
erintendents. 
22d of February. 
Option of governor. 


North Carolina 

North Dakota 

Ohio .. 


Oklahoma 

Oregon 


Pennsvlvania 

Rhode Island 

South Carolina 

South Dakota 

Tennessee 


Texas 


Vermont . . 




West Virginia 

Wisconsin 


Fall and spring, at designation of super- 

intendent of schools. 
Option of governor. 
Do 


^Vyoming. . . 


Washington 


Do. 



140 



AGRICULTURE. 



FOREST FIRE LAWS IN THE UNITED STATES. 

(Feknow.) 

(See p. 142 for penalties imposed.) 



State. 


Edition of 
Code. 


Title. 


Chapter. 


Section. 


Alabama ... 

Arkansas! -j 

California" 

Colorado \ 

Conneciicui3 

Delaware* 

Klorida 


C. C. 1886 

S. & H.'s D. 

1894 

P. C. 1886 

Mills, G. S. 

1891 

G. S. 1888. .. . 
Vol. XVIII. .. 
Laws 1879 


i 

ID 
[ 


48 

36 

99 
93 


4226-8 

1580-4 

384 

1414 15, 17-18 

1458, 1460-2 
1-2 
3 141 
1456-9 
6921 
18 


f 

19 




1882 




ID 

38 

5 
3 


Idaho 


R. S. 1887. 

R. S. 1895 


9 


Indiana 

Iowa 


R. S. 1894 . . . 
McLean's, 1888 
C. L. 1889 


24 


200 T 

5185-92 
7276-8 

5-^ 
817 

5 
1-2 

9402-4 
6 


Kentucky 


G. S. 1888 

1884. 




39 


Maine 

Maryland.* 
Massachusetts''. . 
Michigan^ \ 


Laws 1891 

Sup. 1888 

Howell's A. S. 

1882 

G. S. 1878 


i 

» 


100 

163- 
328 

95 
29 
47 


Mississippi 

Missouri 


1892 




109 1 
3613 


R S 1889 











* S. 1847: Burning off permitted when consent of neighbors is secured 
after i day's notice. 

" Pol. Code, S. 3344-5 : Persons firing woods, etc., liable in treble dam- 
ages. Constable, etc., may order any inhabitants liable to poll-tax to 
assist in extinguishing fire. 

3 Must give notice, before burning off, to all residents within one mile, 
and can only be done between February 15 and March 31, unless otherwise 
oidered by county commissioner. 

* Prohibits building fire in woods without owner''s permission, and with- 
out first clearing away combustibles, and extinguishing fire. 

6 Must give I day's notice, before burning off, to adjoining property 
owners, and then only betwen Feb. 20 and April i. 

« No law included in Revised Statutes. 

■* Ch. 296, S. 1-6, G. S. 1883 • Duty of fire wardens to post warnings, 
extinguish fires, and investigate causes of fires. 

8 Supervisors and highway commissioners to order assistance in putting 
out fires; fine S5-S50 for refusal to assist. 

* See act of April 18, 1895. 



FORESTRY. 
POREST-FIRE Ij\'W^— Continued. 



141 



State. 



Montana'^ 

Nebraska 

Nevada. . . . . . . 

New Hampshire 

New Jerseyii 

New York 

North Carolina!^ 
North Dakota. . 

Ohioi3 

Oregon!* ... . 

Pennsylvania. , . 

Rhode Island.. . 
South Carolinais 
South Dakota. . 

Tennessee!* 

Texas 

Utahi7 

Vermont. 

Virginia 

West Virginia . . 

Wisconsin 

Wyoming!^ .... 

Arizona 

New Mexico . .. 

Oklahoma's .. , 



Edition of 
Code. 



P. C. 

1895. , 
G. S. 
P. S. 

R. S. 

R. S 

Vol. : 

1895- 

R. S. 
Sess. 

1S94. 

G. S. 
1893. 
Dak. 
M.& 
P. C. 
C. L. 
1894 
1887. 
i8gi 
R. S. 
R. S. 
R. S. 
1884 

1893. 



1895. 



1885. 
:89i. 

1877. 



1894. 
1893. 



[886. 



Ter. 
V.C. 



18S7. 



Title. 



Fire. 
14 



Crim. Stat. 



Chapter. 



c. c. 9-62 



20 
P. cf4o 



279 



25 
37 entire. 



Section. 



1071-2 

6713 

4794 
3-7 
I and sup- 
plements. 

52-4 

7314-15 

6334 

Page 45 

Act of June 

II, 1879-81 

6 

151-7 
2398 
2277-8 

669-70 
4576 
4934 
3701-2 

81-84 
4406 

920-2 

608-9 
23«3-M 
2269-70 



10 Penalty for failing to extinguish camp-fii e or malicious firing of woods, 
fine not exceeding $5000; or imprisonment not exceeding 5 years, or both. 

Ji Ch. i88, G. P. Laws 1888, provides detectives for violators of fire 
law. Ch. 119, Laws 1892, and Ch. 194, Laws 1894, provide for fire mar- 
shals and define their duties. 

12 Fine $10 for leaving unextinguished camp-fire. Two days' notice in 
writing before firing one's own woods. 

13 S. 4750-1: Penalty for refusing to assist in extinguishing fires, fine $10. 

14 Requires governor to issue proclamation annually July i, warning 
people against forest fires. 

16 If turpentine farm, fine $500, or penitentiary i year. 

18 Owner may fire his own woods after two days' notice to neighbors. 

" Ch. 27, Laws 1892: Duty of county sheriffs to extinguish fires. 

18 Permits firing grass and sage-bush March, April, and October, if kept 
within control. 

19 Camp-fires, and regulations for burning off prairies, etc., Ch. 37 (enacted 
1890) provides penalties for setting fires and failure to extinguish. 



143 AGRICULTURE. 

FOREST-FIRE IjA'W^— Continued. 

PENALTY PRESCRIBED BY STATE LAWS. 

Alabama. — Fine $io-f2oo ; if turpentine forest, $ioo-$iooo. or hard 
labor for not more than 12 months. 

Arkansas. — Fine $25-1300, or \a\\ 10-60 days. Liable for double 
damages. 

California. — Fine not more than $1000, or jail not more than i year, or 
both. 

Colorado.— ¥\nt $5o-$3oo. or jail 15 days to 3 months, or both If on State 
lands, $5c>-$5oo, or jail 20 days to 6 months, 

Connecticitt.—¥\v\Q $2o-$2oo, or jail 2-6 months, or both. Fine $i-$5o, 
or jail not more than 30 days. 

Delaware. — Fine $25. 

Florida.— Yme not more than $100, or jail not more than 60 days. 

Georgia. — Fine not more than $1000, or i year in chain-gang, or both. 

Idaho. — Misdemeanor. 

Illinois. — Fine $5-$ 100. 

Indiana.— Fine $5-$ 100, to which may be added imprisonment not more 
than 30 days. 

loztia.— Fine not exceeding $500, or jail not exceeding i year. 

Kansas.— Fine $5o-$5oo, or jail 10 days to 6 months, or both. 

Kentucky. — Fine $100, or in discretion of jury. 

Louisiana. — Fine $5-$5oo. 

Maine.— Fine not exceeding $100, or jail not exceeding 30 days, or both. 

Massachusetts .—Fine not more tlian $100, or jail not more than 6 months. 

Michigan. — Fine not more than $100, or jail not more than 1 year, or 
both. 

Minnesota. — State prison 6 months to 2 years. 

Mississippi. — Fine $2o-$5co, or jail not more than 3 months, or both. 

Missouri — Fine not more than $500, or jail not more than 12 monthi. 

Montana.— F\n& not more than $1000, or jail not more than t year. 

Nebraska.— Fine $5-8100, and jail 1-6 months. 

Nevada. — Fine S200-S1000, or jail 10 days to 6 months, or both. 

Nezv Hampshire. — Fine $io-$2ooo, or imprisonment not more than 3 
years. 

New Jersey. — Fine not more than $100, or jail not more than i year, or 
both. 

New York. — Fine not exceeding $1000, or imprisonment not exceeding 
I year. 

North Carolina.— Fine $50. 

North Dakota. — V'}i\{\x\. a misdemeanor ; negligent, fine $io-Sico. 
Ohio. — Fine not more than $100, or jail not more than 20 days, or both. 
Oregon.— Fine $io-$iooo, and in certain cases penitentiary not exceed, 
ing I year. 

Pennsylvania.— Fine not more than $300, or jail not more than i yeatv 
or both. 



FORESTBY. 143 

Rhode /j/a«^.— Imprisonment not exceeding 2 years. 

South Carolina.— Yme $5-$ioo, or jail not more than 30 days. 

South Dakota.— Fine not more than $200, or jail not more than i year, 
or both. 

Tennessee. — Forfeit $100 to prosecutor and fine $5-$5o (S. 2277, Code 
Sup. 1893). 

Texas. — Fine $50-300. 

i/^a^.— Misdemeanor. 

Vermont. — Fine not more than $500, or penitentiary not more than 1; 
years. 

Virginia. — Fine Ss-Sioo, and jail 1-6 months. 

West Virginia .— Fine Sio-$iooo, or jail not more than 12 months. 

Wisconsin.— Fine not more than $500, or jail not more than i year. 

Wyoming. — Fine not more than $500, or jail 30 days to 6 months. 

y4r7'ztf«rt.— Misdemeanor. If on State or U. S. lands, fine not more than 
$1000, or jail not more than i year, or bolh. 

New Mexico. — Fine $6o-$5oo. 

Oklahoma.— Fine $ia-$5oo, or jail not more than i year, or both. 



144 AGRICULTURE. 



X. MANURES AND FERTILIZERS. 

It is a matter of common experience among farmers that the 
soil is impoverished by continuous cropping, and the yields 
obtained therefore gradually decreased. The decrease in 
yields can only be prevented by applications of farmyard 
manure or commercial fertilizers; ploughing and thorough 
cultivation of the soil bring the land in abetter mechanical 
condition and increase the amount of available plant food 
present in the soil, but these operations are not sufficient 
to maintain the fertility of the land so that it will yield 
equally well from year to year under otherwise favorable 
conditions. Every crop harvested contains certain quan- 
tities of fertilizing ingredients, and taking away these 
amounts in general leaves the soil in a poorer condition for 
the production of crops than it was before. 

The fertilizing ingredients of which the soil is thus liable 
to be robbed are potash, phosphoric acid, nitrogen, and 
sometimes lime. They are not present as such in the soil, 
or in the fertilizers applied to the soil, but in chemical com- 
binations with a large variety of compounds. The soil will 
contain nearly all the different elements which chemists 
have so far succeeded in isolating, but it is mainly the 
three elements, potassium, phosphorus, and nitrogen, 
which are apt to be decreased in the soil below the amounts 
required for the nutrition of crops, or at least of maxi- 
mum crops. In rational fertilization the effort therefore 
always is to return to the soil such quantities of fertilizing 
ingredients, in the shape of farmyard manure or com- 
mercial fertilizers, as will restore the loss sustained by the 
withdrawal of the crops harvested. Other mineral ingre- 
dients contained in the crops need not generally be re- 
turned to the soil, since they are nearly everywhere pres- 
ent in abundance. 



MANURES AK"D FERTILIZERS. 



145 



It is the grand work done for the farmer by agricultural 
chemistry during the past half century which has ex- 
plained the causes of the decreased fertility of land due 
to continuous cropping, and has given the remedies for 
maintaining the fertility. The latter are as follows: 

First, by selling only such products from the farm as will 
deprive the soil of the smallest quantities of fertilizing in- 
gredients, i.e., manufactured products, like milk, cream, 
butter, meat, eggs, rather than grain crops, hay, etc. The 
tables given on pp. 148-151 show the amounts of fertilizing 
ingredients removed in farm products of various kinds and 
deserve a close study by all farmers. 

Secondly, by carefully saving the manure produced by 
stock — both liquid and solid (the former by the use of ab- 
sorbents, peat, land plaster, kainit, superphosphate, shav- 
ings, etc., or by building special cisterns for storing it; the 
latter by placing it under shelter, guarding against leakage) 
— and returning it to the land ; as the products sold off the land 
also contain certain quantities of fertilizing constituents, 
the loss must be repaired by purchase of concentrated food 
stuffs, at least three fourths of whose valuable ash ingredi- 
ents will go into the manure and thus be saved for crops. 

Thi7'dly, by following a rational system of rotation of 
crops, and by frequent culture of leguminous crops, — 
clovers, peas, beans, etc., — since these are able to so fix 
the free nitrogen of the air as to render it of value to ani- 
mals and plants. 

APPROXIMATE LOSSES OF FERTILIZING MATE- 
RIALS IN DIFFERENT SYSTEMS OF FAR3IING. 

(Snyder.) 



System of Farming. 



All grain-farming- 

Mixed grain- and general farming. . 
Mixed potato- and general farming. 

Stock-farming 

Dairy-farming 



Nitrogen. ^^^Pj^^"*^ Potash. 



lbs. 
5600 
2600 
2300 

900 
800 



lbs. 
2500 
1000 
1000 
50* 
75* 



lbs. 
42CX) 



2400 
60 



* Gain. 



146 



AGRICULTURE. 



The figures given show the approximate losses on a 
i6o-acre farm under the different systems of farming. 
With stock- and dairy-farming, as well as partly in mixed 
grain- and general farming, the loss of nitrogen may be 
avoided by growing clover. In stock- and d.airy-farming, 
therefore, no loss of fertility will occur under these con- 
ditions when all the skim-milk is fed on the farm and a 
part of the grain is exchanged for more concentrated milled 
products, but there will on the contrary be a constant 
gain of fertility to the soil. (See Bull. 41, Minn. Exp. 
Station.) 

AVERAGE CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF 
AMERICAN SOILS. 

(King.) 









J3 


rt 


6 

a 
■;3 


c 
be 

« 




1^ 




Per ct. 


Per ct. 


Per ct. 


Per ct. 


Per ct. 


Per ct. 


Per ct. 


Sandy soils... 


93.21 


2.61 


. 121 


.051 


.085 


.048 


.087 


Clayey soils . . 


68 


21 


6.53 


.319 


.128 


.617 


.456 


.141 


Humus soils. 


35 


8q 


13-94 


•639 


.109 


3.786 


.886 


.150 


Loess soils — 


68 


8s 


1. 21 


•435 


.165 


5-820 


3.692 


.200 


Humid soils... 


84 


03 


3-64 


.216 


.091 


.108 


.225 


"3 


Arid soils 


70 


57 


4-95 


.729 


.264 


1.362 


1. 411 


.117 



MANURES AND FEKTILIZEKS. 147 



MANURTAL VALUE OF FEEDING STUFFS. 

Chart shoiving Pounds of Fertilizing Constituents of Feeding 

Stuffs in one Ton, and the Manurial Value of Feeding Stuffs, 

according to the Valuation given. 

"Nitrogen Phosphoric Acid Potash 

Prtce i^er pound 12 cts. 4>^ cts. 4>^ cts. 

Black Bar represents Manurial Value per Ton. 

' '20 '40 '60 '30 '100 '120 '140 '160 ' 180 '200 Iba. 
Oreen corn foJde r^^^^ $ 1 . 42 
Oat fodder r~Wl 1 fn 

Oreen clover r~W^ l.go 
Com silage m 1 1(1 

%VZf' r~TT— 1 4.02 

Timothy hay l T~' ^-1 4.31 

Red clover hay r ' ^T ■ :m^ 7-29 

^Yheat straw 

Potatoes 




10.16 



Rice bran ^ 
Linseed meal , 

O.P. L^ 

Xinseed meal p— 

N.P. L— 

Cotton seed meal r 



Cotton seed hulls V'ti " ' I 



16.77 



Gluten meal {, 


'—^am^^^i^ 














1^ "7 


J{rp.7iters' fyrains r~~T n 


.2.4G 

r 1 1 1 1 1 




A 1 


1 1 



100 120 140 160 180 2U0 Ibl. 



148 



AGRICULTURE. 



FERTILiIZING CONSTITUENTS OF FEEDING 
STUFFS AND FARM PRODUCTS. 

(Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.) 



Material. 



Green Fodders. 

Pasture grass 

Green fodder corn 

Sorghum fodder 

Rye fodder. . . 

Oat fodder 

Timothy grass 

Red clover 

White clover 

Alsike clover 

Scarlet clover.. 

Alfalfa (lucern) 

Cowpea 

Soja bean 

Prickly comfrey 

Corn silage , 



Hay and Dry Coarse Fodders. 

Fodder corn (with ears) 

Corn stover (without ears) 

Hungarian grass 

Common millet 

Hay of mixed grasses 

Red-top • . 

Timothy 

Red clover 

Mammoth red clover 

White clover 

Scarlet clover 

Alsike clover 

Alfalfa 

Barley straw 

- chaff 

Wheat straw 

'* chaff 

Rye straw 

Oat " 

Buckwheat hulls 



per ct. 
63.1 
78.6 
82.2 
62.1 
834 
66.9 
80.0 
81.0 
81.8 

7.S-3 
78 8 

73-2 
84.4 
78.0 



7.85 
9.12 
7.69 
9-75 
11.99 
7.71 



Roots, Bulbs, Tubers, etc. 

Potatoes 

Sweet potatoes 

Hed beets. 

Yellow fodder beets 

Sugar beets 

Mangel-wurzels 

Turnips 

Rutabagas 

Carrots 



18.30 
9.94 
6.55 
11.44 
13.08 
12.56 
8.05 
7.61 
9.09 
11.90 



79.24 
71.26 
87-73 
go 60 
86.95 
87 29 
89 -49 
89 T3 
89.79 



I -31 

2. IS 



2.25 
1-47 



4.91 
3-74 
6.18 

6.34 
4-59 
4-93 
6-93 
8.72 



7.70 

7.07 
5-30 

"3. si' 
7.18 
3-25 
4.76 



per ct, 
3.27 
4.8, 



1. 00 
1-13 
•95 
1.04 
1 .22 
i.ot 
1.06 
1.22 



per ct. 

91 
41 
23 
33 
49 
48 
53 
50 
44 
43 
72 
27 
29 
42 
28 



1. 41 

I-I5 
1.26 
2.07 
2 23 
2.75 
2.05 
2-34 
2. 19 
1-31 

l.OI 

•59 
•79 
.46 
.62 
•49 



•32 
.24 
.24 
.19 



a.-2 
2< 



per ct. 
•23 
•15 
.09 
•15 
•13 
.26 
•13 



•13 
• 13 
.10 
•15 



MANURES AND FERTILIZERS. 



149 



FERTILIZING CONSTITUENTS OF FEEDING 

STUFFS AND FARM PRODUCTS.— (C^«/z««r«'.) 



Material. 



Grains and Other Seeds. 

Corn 

Sorghum seed 

Barley 

Oats 

Wheat, spring. 

" winter 

Rye 

Millet, common 

Japanese millet 

Rice 

Buckwheat 

So ja beans 

Other Concentrated Feeds 

Corn meal . 

Corn and cob meal 

Ground oats. 

" barley 

Wheat flour 

Pea meal 

Corn cobs 

Hominy feed 

Gluten meal 

Starch feed (glucose refuse) 

Malt sprouts. 

Brewers'' grains, dry 

" wet 

Rye bran 

" middlings 

Wheat bran 

middlings 

Rice bran 

" polish 

Buckwheat middlings 

Cotton seed meal 

hulls 

Linseed meal (old process). . 
" " (new process) . 

Apples, fruit 

Apple pomace.. 

Dairy Products^ etc. 

Whole milk 

Skim milk 

Cream 

Buttermilk 

Whey 

Butter 

Cheese. 

Live cattle , 

Sheep 

Swine 



, 






03 


^ 


per ct. 


10.88 


14 


.00 


14 


■30 


18 


•17 


14 


•35 


14 


■75 


14 


qo 


12 


.68 


73 


68 


12 


60 


14 


10 


18 


33 


12.95 


8 


96 


II 


17 


13 


43 





83 


8 


85 


12 


09 


8 


9^ 


8 


Sq 


8 


10 


18 


38 


9 


14 


75 


01 


12 


50 


12 


54 


11 


74 


9 


18 


10. 


20 


ID. 


30 


14. 


70 


7- 


81 


10. 


i-i 


8. 


88 


7- 


77 


«s. 


30 


80. 


50 


87.00 


. 90-25 


74-05 


90.50 


92.97 


79.10 


33 25 


50 2 


44.8 


42 


1 



per ct. 

1-53 

2.48 
2.98 
1-57 



4.99 



2 .21 
•73 



12.48 
3-92 

4.60 
3 52 
6.25 
2 .30 
12.94 
9.00 
1.40 

6.95 
2.40 
6.08 
5-37 
•39 
•27 



per ct. 



1.58 
1. 41 
1.86 
1-55 
2 .21 
3.08 

•50 
1.63 
503 
2.62 
3-55 
3.62 

.89 
2.32 
1.84 
2.67 
2.63 

• 71 
1.97 
1.38 
6.79 

.69 
5-43 
5^78 

•13 

•-'3 






per ct. 

70 



•63 
■57 

•77 
.66 

•57 
.82 
.06 
.98 
•33 
.29 
•43 
•03 



;.26 
!.89 

•95 
.29 
1.67 
.68 
.88 
•25 
:.66 
.83 



per ct. 
40 
42 



150 



AGRICULTURE. 



AMOUNT OF SOIL, INGREDIENTS WITHDRAWN 
BY VARIOUS CROPS, IN LBS. PER ACRE. 

(HiLGARD.) 



Crops. 



Grapes, 1,000 lbs 

Crop of 10,000 lbs 

Seeds, 646 lbs 

Flesh, 9,154 lbs 

Wood, 2,010 lbs 

Prunes, 1,000 lbs.. 

Crop of 30,000 lbs 

Pits, 1,635 lbs 

Flesh, 28,365 lbs 

Apricots, 1,000 lbs 

Crop of 30,000 lbs 

Pits, 1,740 lbs 

Flesh, 28,260 lbs 

Oranges, 1,000 lbs 

Crop of 20,000 lbs 

Seeds, 240 lbs 

Flesh and rind, 19,760 lbs 

Roots, percentage 

Stems, " 

Leaves " • 

Olives, 1,000 lbs 

Crop of 2,200 lbs 

Pits, 429 lbs 

Flesh, 1,771 lbs 

Leaves, 4,400 lbs 

Wood, 11,000 lbs 

Wheat. 1,000 lbs. (whole plant). . . 

Crop of 4,800 lbs. (hay) 

Grain, 20 bushels 

Straw, 3,600 lbs 

Alfalfa, 1,000 lbs 

Crop of 12,000 lbs 

Sugar beets (fresh), 1,000 lbs 

Crop of 72,000 lbs 

Roots, 40,000 lbs 

Tops, 32,000 lbs 

Ramie, i.ooo lbs „ 

Crop of 14.25 tons 

Leaves, 4.25 tons 

Stalk (without bark), 7.25 tons 

Bark (cuticle and fibre), 2,75 

tons 

Cotton, 1,000 lbs 

Crop of 3,200 lbs 

Leaves, 400 lbs 

Stems, 1,200 lbs 

Seeds, 800 lbs 

Burs, 400 lbs 

Lint, 400 lbs .... 



53-42 

3-03 

1 20 . 90 

8.60 

112.30 

5-i6 

154.80 

12.25 

142-55 

4-32 

86.40 
6.90 

79-50 
100.12 
100.00 

99.91 

94-63 
208.18 
193-25 

M-56 
190.16 
123.18 

51.26 
246.04 

24.00 
222.04 

65.00 
780.00 

18.73 
349-72 
287.00 
1062.72 

75-19 
M3-57 
641-35 
410.48 

91-74 
54.26 
173.60 
48.69 
38-44 
29 -37 
52.01 
509 



5 
50.00 

1.48 
47-44 
15.69 

2.66 
79-70 

2.06 
77-64 

2.83 
84.98 

1.36 
83.62 

2. II 
42.28 

2 74 
39-54 
15-43 
11.69 
16.51 

8.55 
18 81 

6.77 
12.04 
58.05 
24.46 

9-15 
43-92 

7-85 
36.07 
13-49 
161.88 

5-38| 

38744 

52.00 

235-44 

8.84! 
51.98 
68.13 
55-99 

27.86 
11 .00 
35-26 
7-99 
9.17 
8.99 
7.42 
1.69 



1 .00 

[O.OO 



21 .60 
-13 

3-9^ 

•52 

3-40 

.18 

5-45 

-83 

4-65 

.99 

19.72 

1.32 

18.40 

49-89 

5513 

56.38 

2.32 

5.10 

4.01 

i'.o9 

88.53 

66.63 

2.30 

11.04 

.72 

10.32 

22.86 

274.32 

3-" 

224.08 

16 

208 08 

23.08 

657.82 

566.9 

71.77 

19.14 
13.76 
44.04 
15-03 
10.58 

3-07 
14.16 

1.20 



x; 

eu 



1.52 
15.20 
5-75 
8-93 
8.74 

•53 
15-95 
2.80 
13-15 

-71 
21.38 

5 36 
16.02 

-53 
10.60 
1.61 
8.99 
13-47 
17.09 

3-27 

1.18 

2-59 

2 40 

-19 

20.08 

14.87 

4-13 

19.80 

11.90 

7 90 

6.43 

77.16 

1.61 

16.16 

36.00 

80.16 

6 46 
55-70 
77-13 
67.71 

10.86 
7-03 

-22.54 
4- 

4-49 

9-74 

3-57 

•52 



MANURES AND FERTILIZERS. 



151 






(/} 

Pi 

H 
•11 

^^ 

O^ 

;^ o 

Pi 

^^ 

H 
Pi 
H 

O 
O 



S 



0. 



o . 

5 t" y 

3 C < 



O C 

(A W 

-a bo 

c o 



222222S°°°°°o°oooocooc 



£2222222°2°°°°°°'^°"^°°co 

.O lO 't^,'" -^ '^ '-' ^ '^ -^ ^ 

" w S 2 JS S ^"^ ~ 'S "^ '-' ° "^^ N O rr, O 00 O 



^2 



£2225222°'^°'^°°'^'^ooocoooo 



O CO O 00 \0 M- u~i\o "Th IT) ir-.r. 



§88 ill'ig 

o o o ; o o o o 

\0> M o o 
•O o o ■ -?s o o 



Z- O 

vc8 



2 2 

w O 



O O o c 



o o o 

tC2 8 



5^8 



O 3 P 




o o o 
o o o 



c if; c ^ ;£ ^ 
c 

O vo O 00 o o o 



OOOOOOOO . 



o O 

O lO 



4J «J I- 2 

bx; . • . ' be 









— nJU=:ni^ifo'-C;-n3E:a;o£o>> 3.S "o O 5 "^ 

<5PQfflmuuuuOESoociieua:c2oit^h:HHH^ 



^ <U^^ 0>>3._ O O D~ 



152 



AGRICULTUIiB. 



MINIMU3I AMOUNT OF FARMYARD MANURE 

required to replace the Ingredients abstracted from 
the Soil by an Acre of Different Crops. (McConnell.) 



Wheat 5 tons. 

Barley • 5 

Oats 5 

Meadow hay 8 

Red clover 12 

Beans 10 



Turnips 15 tons. 

Swedes 10 

Mangolds 20 

Potatoes 10 

Cabbage 25 

Carrots 10 



AMOUNT AND QUALITY OF MANURE PRODUCED 
BY STOCK. 

The various classes of farm animals will produce about 
the following quantities of solid and liquid manure during 
a year, viz. : 

Solid Manure. Liquid Manure 

Horse 12,000 lbs. 3,000 lbs. 

Cow 20,000 " 8,000 " 

Sheep 760 " 380 " 

Pig 1,800 " 1,200 '• 

Since a considerable portion of the manure is lost while 
the animal is working or is out-doors, the quantities secured 
in the manuj-e-pile will not come up to these figures. 

The quantities of urine voided by farm animals during 
twenty-four hours are on the average as follows, accord- 
ing to Wilckens : cows, 15-20 lbs.; horses, 20-27 lbs.; 
sheep, 2 lbs.; swine, 7-9 lbs. The capacity for liquid 
manure-tanks or cisterns intended to hold the fluid excre- 
ments of a herd of a certain size may readily be calculated 
on a basis of these figures (see tables on p. 182). 6000 lbs. 
(about 720 gallons) of urine per 1000 lbs. live weight of 
cattle, is a liberal estimate. 

The quality of the manure produced will depend on the 
character of the feeding and the kind of stock kept. Rich 
feeding produces a rich manure, since, as shown in the 
table given below, only a relatively small portion of the 
valuable fertilizihg ingredients of the food is retained in 



MANURES AND FERTILIZERS. 



153 



the bodies of the animals, or is taken away in the products 
sold. Rich feeding, therefore, has a beneficial influence in 
two directions, larger yields of products being obtained, 
and a better quality of manure being produced. 

COMPOSITION, AMOUNT, AND VALiUE OF MANUKK 
Produced by Diflfereut Kinds of Farm Animals. 

(Results of experiments conducted at Cornell University Experiment 
Station.) 



Sheep. .. 
Calves 
Pigs ... 
Cows . . . 
Horses . 



Analysis and Value per Ton of 
Manure. 



Per ct. 

59-. "52 
77-73 
7413 
75-25 
48.69 






Per ct. 

■7 
50 
,84 
43 
49 






Per ct. 

9-39 
•17 
■39 
.29 
.26 



Per ct. 

59 
53 
32 
44 



nl ao 
> H 



$3-30 



Amount and Value oer 

1000 lbs. Live Weight 

per Day. 



tn 




<u *. 


Poun 

per 

Day 




^^^ 
.^^ 




Cents. 




34.1 


7.2 


$26 09 


67 8 


6.7 


24-45 


83 6 


16.7 


60.88 


74.1 


8.0 


29.27 


48.8 


7.6 


27.74 



QUANTITIES OF NITROGEN AND ASH CONSTITU- 

ents Voided by Animals or Obtained in Animal 
Products. (Lawes and Gilbert.) 



Horse at rest . . . 
Horse at work. 
Fattening oxen . 
Fattening sheep. 
Fattening pigs. 
Milking cows 



Percentage of Nitrogen. 



Obtain- 
ed as 

Animal 
Prod- 
uct. 



None. 

None. 
3-9 
4-3 
14.7 

24-5 



Voided 
;is Solid 
Excre- 
ment. 



22 .6 
.6.7 



Voided 

as 
Liquid 
Excre- 
ment. 



570 
70.6 
73-5 
79.0 
633 
57-4 



In Total 
Excre- 
ment. 



1 00.0 
1 00.0 
96.1 
95-7 
85.3 
75-5 



Percentage of Ash 
Constituents. 



Obtained 
as Live 
Weight 
or Milk. 



None. 

None. 
23 
3-8 
4.0 
10.3 



Voided 
as Excre- 
ment or 
Perspira- 
tion. 



100. o 

IGO.Q 

97 7 
96.2 
96.0 
89.7 



* Valuing nitrogen at 15 cents, pnosphoric acid at 6 cents, ana putasU 
at 4i cents per pound. 



154 



AGRICULTURE. 



PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION OF COMMERCIAIj 
FERTILIZING MATERIALS. (Beal.) 





t 

'5 



2 


I 


Phosphoric Acid. 




Name. 


i 

*o 
c/) 


<u 
> 




6 

s 


Alerae {Lyvgbia majttscula). 
Ammonite 


16.26 

5.88 


4 25 
'1-33 


•79 






.10 


5 06 






3.4 ! .:.:: 

36.08 

.10! 


Aslies anthracite coal 






.10 
.40 
1.20 
1.27 
5-25 
I-3I 






" bituminous " 






.40 
1.14 
1-51 

;;£ 

17.00 
23-25 

17.60 
20.10 
29.90 




" lime-kiln — 

" wood leached . . 


'5-45 
30.22 
12.50 
40.09 
7.00 
4.60 


'8!20 


48.50 
28.08 








34.00 
44.89 


Bat gfuano 

Bone-ash 


2-37 


1.24 








, 










15.40 1.30 
.40 7.60 

13.53 




Bone meal 

" " dissolved 

" " free from fat 


7-50 


4 05 

2.60 
6.20 
1.70 






*' " from glue factory 
Carnallite 










13.60 

1. 10 

22.75 

1.77 

1-50 








Caribbean guano 


7.31 
9-50 
7.80 
7-75 

24.27 

12.50 

12.75 

81.19 

22.28 

10. 17 

3.20 

87-75 

22.70 

4.82 

7.27 

1-50 

1.50 

1.50 

1.50 

12.09 

13- 32 

50.00 

60.00 

2.00 

7.60 

I 40 

8 54 


5-50 

6.79 
4 30 
1.67 
10.52 
7-25 
.35 






26.77 
1-75 
8.85 
2.88 
3.10 

13-35 

1. 91 

8.25 

.07 


39-95 


Cotton-hul' ashes 


1-25 


6.50 


9.60 


Cotton-seed meal, decort . . 
" " '• undecort.. 










Dried tish 

Eel - grass (z^i'^^rrt marina).. 


•32 


•55 


2.60 


-51 
43.66 


Horn and hoof waste ... 


13-25 
.20 








1.83 
.06 


Kainit 


13-54 
.24 






1. 15 


Kieseriie ... 


2 82 


KruEfite 

Lobster shells 

Marls, Kentucky 

" Maryland and Virginia 
" New Jersey green sand 
" North Carolina 

Meat scrap 

Mona Island guano 

Muck 


4.50 

10.44 

.76 

t .10 

.40 

15 70 
12.12 


8.42 

•1-3 

•2-5 

3-5-7 

.2-1.5 






3-52 
.2 
.0-2 

.1-4 

0-.4 

2.07 

21.88 

.10 

.ID 


12-45 
22.24 

3-34 
0-40 

1-9 
5-45 














•15 




7-55 


37-49 


Mud salt 






.90 


Muriate of potash 

NavassH phosphate 

Nitrate of soda 










34.27 


37-45 


Oleomargarine refuse 








.88 













MANURES AND FERTILIZERS. 



155 



PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION OF COMMERCIAL. 
FERTILIZING m A^TEUlAIuS.— Continued. 





'5 


c 



ri 
I 


Phosphoric Acid. 




Name. 


<J 
3 

"o 

CO 


> 
4; 
'A 




H 


a 




15.00 
61 .50 
14.81 
2.25 


7-35 


•05 

.18 

2.65 







.18 

.08 

15 •so 

24 50 


55^00 


Peat 


Peruvian guano. 


3.20 


4.10 




Phosphates, Florida 


28.50 
20.93 

"6^06 










Seaweed 

ashes . . 


81.90 

0' '♦^ 
81.50 

88.49 
5-54 

,.50 

3.61 

63.06 

1.00 

4-75 
2-54 
7-25 

10.00 
1.45 
6.18 

10.00 

is -So 

68.87 
60.00 


.29 

•73 
•OS 


.40 
.92 

1.50 
•05 

1.83 






.08 

.18 
.10 








Sewage sludge, precipitated 
Soot 














, 


15.20 

28.03 

1. 61 




S. Carolina rock, dissolved. 
'* '■ ** ground... 
Spent lan-bark ashes 


11.60 


41 '87 

33 46 

1. 14 


1.19 
20.50 

6.70 


2.04 
3^25 




•^ 1 


Sumac waste 






Sulfate of ammonia 








Sulfate of potash and mag- 
nesia 


25-50 
33 40 
16.65 








2.57 


Sulfate of potash, high grade 

Svlvanite 

Tankage 

Thomas slag 

Tobacco stalks 








• 30 

.00 


S-io 
3.06 


11.80 

23^49 

.65 

•70 


"48.66 


371 
2-35 

6.50 

■49 
.29 
.58 

1. 10 
•44 

1-55 

1. 00 
.60 

3.20 
.80 
•55 

1-95 
•50 
.60 
•43 


5 -02 
8.20 
3-92 

tl.20 

•43 
.10 
•49 
.56 
•35 

1.50 
•25 
.20 

1 .00 
•30 
•15 

2.26 
.60 
•13 
•83 


'' stems . 




Wool washings 

Wool waste 








•35 

•32 
•17 


.11 


Composition of Farm 

Manures. 

Barnyard manure, average.. 






Cjittle excrement, solid, fresh 








Cattle urine, fresh 








Hen manure, fresh. 






.85 
•17 












Horse urine, fresh 










Human excrement, solid 


77.20 

95 -qo 
10.00 
50.00 






1.09 

•17 
1.90 
1.40 
•31 
.01 
.30 
.41 
.07 





Human urine 








Pigeon manure, dry 

Poudrette, night soil 

Sheep excrement, solid, fresh 




.. .. 


2.10 
.80 










Stable manure, mixed 


73.27 








Swine excrement, solid, fresh 








Swine urine, fresh 










* 18.5 per cent carbonate. 

+ Nova Scotia plaster contains 94 
carbonate of lime; Onondaga and 
18-28 per cent carbonate of lime. 

% Sometimes as high as 5 per cent. 



per cent pure gypsum and 4 per cent 
Cayuga, 65-75 per cent gypsum and 



156 AGRICULTURE. 

EXHAUSTION OF FERTILIZERS. (Scotch Authority.) 
ON CULTIVATED CLAY LOAM. 



Kind of Fertilizer. 



Lime 

Hone meal 

Phosphatic g^uanos 

Dissolved bones and plain superphos- 
phates 

High-grade ammoniated fertilizers, 
guano, etc , 

Cotton-seed meal 

Stable manure = 



Per Cent remaining in the 

Soil Unexhausted at 

End of Each of Eirst 

Six Years. 



2 


3 


4 


5 


65 


55 


45 


35 


30 


20 


10 




30 


20 


10 




10 


5 


•• 




20 








30 


20 


10 




30 


20 


10 





25 



ON CULTIVATED LIGHT OR MEDIUM SOILS. 



Lime 

Bone meal 

Phosphatic guanos . 

Dissolved bones and plain superphos- 
phate . . 

High-grade ammoniates, guanos 

Cotton-seed meal 

Stable manure 



10 


7S 


60 


40 


30 


20 


I 


4 


60 


30 


10 






. 


4 


50 


20 


10 








3 


20 


10 


5 






. 


3 


30 


20 










4 


40 


30 


20 


10 






4 


bo 


30 


10 




•• 





ON CULTIVATED PASTURE LAND. 



Lime 

Bone meal 

Phosphatic guanos 

Dissolved bone, etc 

High-grade ammoniated guanos 

Cotton seed meal 

Stable manure 



80 


70 


60 


60 


50 


40 


50 


40 


30 


30 


20 


ID 


30 


20 


10 


40 


30 


20 


60 


50 


40 



Sulfate of ammonia, nitrate of soda, sulfate, nitrate, 
and muriate of potash are generally held to be entirely 
exhausted by the crops grown the season of their applica- 
tion. 



MANURES AND FERTILIZERS. 



157 



EQUIVAIiENT QUANTITIES OF FERTIIilZINO 
MATEKIAIjS. (Wheeler and Hartwell.) 



For 



May be Substituted any One of these Materials. 



loo lbs. nitrate of 
soda 

loo lbs. sulfate 
of ammonia 

loo lbs dried 
blood 

loo lbs. cotton- 
seed meal 

loolbs. diss, phos- 
phate rock 

loolbs. diss, bone 
black 

loo lbs. double 
superphosphate 

r 

ICO lbs. tank- I 
age j 

r 



\oo lbs. d ry J 
ground fish ) 



loo lbs. fine- J 
ground bone | 



76 lbs. sulfate of 

ammonia 
132 lbs. nitrate of 

soda 
71 lbs. nitrate of 

soda 
43 lbs. nitrate of 

soda 
76 lbs, diss, bone 

black 
131 lbs. diss, phos 

phate rock 
308 lbs. diss, phos- 
phate rock 



235 lbs. cotton- 
seed meal. 

311 lbs. cotton- 
seed meal 

167 lbs. cotton- 
seed meal 

60 lbs. dried 
blood 



141 lbs. dried 

blood 
186 lbs. dried 

blood 
54 lbs. sulfate of 

ammonia 

32 lbs. sulfate of 
ammonia 

33 lbs. double su- 
perphosphate 

43 lbs. double su- 
perphosphate 

235 lbs. double 
superphosphate 
39 lbs. nitrate of soda and 38 lbs. phosphate rock. 

29 lbs. sulfate of ammonia and 38 lbs. phosphate 
rock. 

55 lbs. dried blood and 38 lbs. phosphate rock. 
91 lbs. cotton-seed meal and 38 lbs. phosphate rock. 
80 lbs. dry ground fish and 14 lbs. phosphate rock. 
33 lbs. nitrate of soda and 4.5 lbs. fine-ground bone. 
48 lbs. nitrate of soda and 31 lbs. diss, phosphate rock. 
37 lbs. sulfate of ammonia and 31 lbs. diss, phosphate 

rock. 
68 lbs. dried blood and 31 lbs. diss, phosphate rock. 
113 lbs. cotton-seed meal and 31 lbs. diss, phosphate 

rock. 
80 lbs. tankage and 17 lbs. nitrate of soda. 
36 lbs. fine ground bone and 44 lbs. nitrate of soda. 
13 lbs. nitrate of soda and 85 lbs. diss, phosphate rock. 
10 lbs. sulfate of ammonia and 85 lbs. diss, phosphate 

rock. 
18 lbs. dried blood and 85 lbs. diss, phosphate rock. 

30 lbs. cotton-seed meal and 85 lbs. diss, phosphate 
rock. 

33 lbs. tankage and 72 lbs. diss, phosphate rock. 

27 lbs. dry ground fish and 76 lbs. diss, phosphate rock, 



158 



AGRICULTURE. 



PKO PORTION OF PLANT FOOD RECOMMENDED 
FOR CROPS. (Virginia Exp. Station.) 



Crop. 


Nitro- 
. gen. 


Phos- 
phoric 
Acid. 


Potash 


Crop. 


Nitro- 
gen. 


Phos- 
phoric 
Atid. 


Potash 


Alfalfa 

Barley 

Buckwheat . 
Cabbage . . . 

Clover 

Corn 

Cotton 


% 
I 
4 
4 
6 
I 
3 
3 


% 
8 
7 
8 
7 
8 
8 
8 


% 

TO 

8 
Q 
9 

lO 

6 
4 


Oats 

Peanuts . . . 
Potatoes . . 

Rye 

Tobacco . . . 
Tomatoes . . 
Wheat .... 


% 
4 

2 

4 

4 
5 
4 
3 


% 
9 

TO 

7 
9 
6 
6 
8 


% 
6 

lO 
lO 

5 

10 

7 
4 



VALUATION OF MANURES AND FERTILIZERS. 



The valuation of fertilizing ingredients shown below (see 
p. 159) is the one agreed upon by a number of Eastern experi- 
ment and fertilizer control stations after a careful study of the 
retail prices of crude products of fertilizers during the six months 
prior to March i, 1908. It expresses the commercial value of 
the fertilizers, and not their agricultural value; the latter will 
vary according to the requirements of the land and the charactc r 
of the crops grown. Fertilizers are sold in States having fer- 
tilizer control, on the basis of a guarantee of a minimum con- 
tent of potash, phosphoric acid, and nitrogen, singly or com- 
bined, and it is the office of the fertihzer control stations to 
watch that goods offered for sale in their respective States are up 
to the guarantee. Farmers living in States where fertilizer laws 
have been enacted (Alabama, Arkansas, CaHfornia, Connecticut, 
Delaware, Florida, Georgia, Illinois, Indiana, Kansas, Kentucky, 
Louisiana, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan, Mis- 
sissippi, Missouri, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, 
North Carolina, North Dakota, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Rhode 
Island, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, Vermont, Virginia, 
West Virginia, Wisconsin) should* only buy fertilizers on guar- 
antee, and should examine the fertilizer bulletins published by 
their respective stations to ascertain that the goods put on the 
market are not below the guarantee, and that the valuation 
price is not below the selling price of the article. Where a reason- 
able suspicion of fraud exists, apply to the director of the experi- 
ment station for information concerning the goods offered for 
sale or the firm placing them on the market. 



MANURES AKD FERTILIZERS. 159 



TRADE VALUES OF FERTILIZING INGREDIENTS IN 
RAW MATERIALS AND CHEMICALS, 1908. 

Adopted by Eastern Experiment Stations for estimating the value of 
mixed commercial fertilizers. 

_^. Cents 

Nitrogen — per lb. 

in nitrates 18.5 

in ammonia salts 17.5 

Organic Nitrogen — 

in dry and fine-ground fish, meat, and blood, and in high- 
grade mixed fertilizers 20 . 5 

in fine bone and tankage 20. 5 

in coarse bone and tankage 15 

Phosphoric Acid — 

soluble in water 5 

soluble in ammonium-citrate solution 4.5 

in dry fine-ground fish, bone, and tankage 4 

in coarse fish, bone, and tankage 3 

in cotton-seed meal, linseed meal, castor pomace, and 

wood ashes 4 

insoluble (in ammonium-citrate solution) in mixed fer- 
tilizers 2 

Potash— 

as high-grade sulfate, and in forms free from muriate . . 5 

as muriate 4I 

The manurial constituents contained in feeding stuffs are 
valued as follows: 

Organic nitrogen 20 . 5 

Phosphoric acid 4 

Potash 4I 



IGO 



AGRICULTURE. 



CONVERSION TABLE FOR CALCULATING FER- 
TILIZING INGREDIENTS. 



Amount of 



Gives Corresponding Amount 
of 



Nitrogen 

Ammonia 

Nitrate of soda , 

Sulfate of ammonia , 

Potash (anhydrous) 

Sulfate of potash 

Muriate of potash 

Phosphoric acid (anhydrous) 

Mono-calcium phosphate . . . 

Di-calcium phosphate 

Tri-calcium phosphate 

Lime (calcium oxid) 

Chlorin 



Ammonia. 
Nitrate of soda. 
Sulfate of ammonia. 

Nitrogen. 

Sulfate of ammonia. 

Chlorid of ammonia. 

Nitric acid. 

Nitrate of soda. 

Protein. 

Nitrogen. 
Ammonia. 
Nitrogen, 
Ammonia. 

Sulfate of potash. 
Muriate of potash. 
Potash, 



Tri-calcium phosphate. 
Di-calcium phosphate. 
Mono-calcium phosphate, 

Tri-calcium phosphate. 

Phosphoric acid, 

Tri-calcium phosphate. 
Carbonate of lime. 
Sodium chlorid. 



PRICES OF NITRATE OF SODA ON THE 

AMMONIATE BASIS. (Chilean Nitrate Works.) 
Figured on Basis 380 lbs. Ammonia in One Ton Nitrate of Soda, 









Equivalent 




Price per 


Price per 


Price Am- 


Price Am- 


Equivalent 


Cwt. of 


Ton of 


monia per Lb. 


monia per 


Cost of Nitro- 


Nitrate. 


Nitrate. 


as Nitrate. 


Ton Unit. 


gen per Lb. 


$1.80 


$36.00 


$0.0947 


^1.894 


$o.iiS 


1.85 


37.00 


0.0973 


1.946 


0.118 


1.90 


38.00 


0. 1000 


2.000 


0.122 


1.95 


39.00 


0. 1026 


2.052 


0.125 


2.00 


40.00 


0. 1052 


2.104 


0.128 


2.05 


41 .00 


0.1078 


2.156 


0. 131 


2.10 


42 .00 


0. 1105 


2.210 


0.134 


2.15 


43.00 


0.1131 


2.262 


0.137 


2.20 


44.00 


0.1157 


2.314 


0. 140 


2.25 


45.00 


. 1 1 84 


2.368 


0.144 


2.30 


46.00 


0. 1210 


2.420 


0,147 


2.35 


47.00 


0.1236 


2.472 


0.150 


2.40 


48.00 


0. 1263 


2.526 


0,153 


2.46 


49.00 


0.1289 


2.578 


0,156 


2.50 


so. 00 


. 1 3 1 5 


2.630 


O.I5Q 



AGRICULTURAL E^N^GINEERING. 161 



XL AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING. 

REASONS FOR TILE-DRAINING liAND. 

(Chamberlain.*) 

Land should be drained, because: 

1. Tile drainage makes all tillage and harvesting operations 
easier and more rapid, physically and mechanically. 

2. Drainage removes both the excess surface-water, and the 
surplus water in the soil and the subsoil. 

3. Drainage prevents loss of fertility by surface wash. 

4. Drainage will add fertility to the soil with each rainfall. 

5. Drainage helps to warm the soil as well as to dry it, giv- 
ing best conditions for plant growth. 

6. Drainage lengthens the season of tillage, crop, growth^ 
and harvest. 

7. Drainage increases the extent of root pasturage. 

8. Drainage helps to disintegrate the soil and make pulveri- 
zation possible. 

9. Drainage greatly diminishes the effect of frost in heaving 
out wheat, clover, etc., in winter and spring. 

10. Drainage on clayey soils helps the crops to resist drought 
better. 

11. Drainage often, though not always, diminishes the sud- 
denness and violence of floods. 

12. Drainage, both open and with tiles, improves the health 
of a region. 

•Tile Drainage, by W. I. Chamberlain, Medina, Ohio, 1891, 35 cents. 



hV2 



AGRICULTURE. 



NUMBER OF RODS AND OF TILES PER ACRE, 

WITH DRAINS AT VARIOUS DISTANCES 

APART. (Scott.) 



Distance 

between 

the Drains. 


Rods 
(5)4 Yards) 
per Acre. 


12-inch 
Tile. 


13-inch 
Tile. 


14-inch 
Tile. 


15-inch 
Tile. 


Feet. 












15 


176 


2904 


2680 


2489 


2323 


18 


146 


2420 


2234 


2074 


1936 


21 


125 


2074 


1915 


1778 


1659 


24 


no 


1815 


1676 


1555 


1452 


27 


Q7 


1613 


148Q 


1383 


1290 


30 


88 


>452 


1340 


1244 


1161 


33 


80 


1320 


1219 


1131 


1056 


36 


72 


1210 


1117 


1037 


968 


39 


67 


1117 


1031 


957 


893 


42 


62 


1037 


958 


888 


829 



SIZE OF TILE PIPES 

Required for Draining under Average Conditions. 

(Waring.) 

The drains being laid four feet, or more, deep, and laid on, 
a well-regulated fall of three inches in a hundred feet ; 

For 2 acres ij-inch pipes 

" 8 ** 2i '* 

" 20 " 3i *' " 

" 40 " two 3^ *• " 

•* 50 " 6 " " 

•* 100 " 8 *' 

These drains will remove the water fast enough for all prac- 
tical purposes, even after heavy storms; if the pipes are securely 
laid, the drains will only be benefited by the occasional cleaning 
they will receive when running "more than full." 






AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING. 



1G3 



Table of Size of Tile Pipe of Main Drain. 

(MCCONNELL.) 



Fall. 


Acres Drained. 


3-inch 
Tile. 


4-inch 
Tile. 


6-inch 
Tile. 


8-inch 
Tile. 


lo-inch 
Tile. 


12-inch 
Tile. 




18.6 
I5-I 
12.9 
II. 9 
10.9 
10. 

?;| 

5-7 

4.1 

3-7 
3-3 
2.9 
2.6 
2.1 
1.9 


26.8 
21.8 
18.6 
17.0 
15.6 
14-5 
13-4 
12.6 
II. 9 
9-5 
8.2 

li 

5-9 

5-2 

4-7 
4.1 
3-7 

3-2 

2.8 


51.6 

47-7 
43-4 
39-9 
37-2 
35 -o 

11:6 

22.8 
20.4 
18.4 
16.5 
14.8 

13-3 
11.4 

10.2 

8.5 

7-4 


150.0 
128.0 
108.8 
98.0 
90.0 
83.0 
77.0 
72.5 
69.2 
56.0 
48.0 
42.4 
38.2 
32.6 
30.1 
28.0 
24.0 
21.2 
16.8 
150 


270.0 
220.8 
189.6 
170.4 
156.0 
144.4 
1350 
127.0 
120.6 
97-3 
83.9 
74-4 
65-5 
60.3 
54. c 
48.6 
41.9 
37-2 
30.8 
25.0 


426.0 
346.0 
298.4 
269.0 
246.0 
228.1 
213.0 
200.5 
190.5 
154-4 
132.5 
117.0 
107.0 
90.7 
81.6 
74.0 
65.0 
56.0 
47.0 
40.8 


I '• " dO 


I AO 


I " ' 50. 


I " " 60 ... . 




I " " 80. ;::;:::*■ 






i " " 150 




t " " 2i;o . . . • . 


I " " 300 


I " " 400 

I " " Soo ... 


I " " 600 


I " " 800 


I " " 1000 


I " " 1500 

I " " 2CXX> 





Rule for Obtaining- Size of Main Pipes. — Multiply the 
square root of the number of small drains (of fair average 
length) by the diameter of small pipes; the quotient gives the 
diameter of main. 

If the distance apart of drains in leet be denoted by F, that 
in links by L, and the length of drains in chains per acre by C, 
then 

_66o _ 1000 



164 



AGRICULTURE. 



NUMBER OF ACRES WHICH A TILE OF A GIVEN 
DIAMETER AND PER CENT GRADE WILL 
DRAIN WHEN USED AS AN OUTLET. (Eluott.) 



Table 1. — Discharg-e of Tile from 4 to 20 inches in 
Diameter on a Grade of 1 foot per 100 feet. 



Diameter of 
Tile, Inches, 


Discharge in 
Cubic Feet 
per Second. 


Diameter of 
Tile, Inches. 


Dischargfe in 
Cubic Feet 
per Second, 


t 

8 
9 

lO 


o. i6 
0.49 
I. II 
1-53 
2.05 


12 

15 
18 
20 


3-40 
6,29 
IO-37 
13-85 



Table 2. — Grades per 100 feet, and their Square Roots. 



Grade per 
100 Feet 


Grade in 
Inches 
(approx- 
imated). 


Square Grac 
Root of 100 


e per 
Feet 


Grade in 
Inches 
(approx- 
imated). 


Square 
Root of 


in Feet. 


Grade. in F 


"eet. 


Grade. 


0.04 


Vo 


. 200 


40 


434 


0.633 


•05 


% 


.224 


45 


M 


.671 


.06 


M 


•245 


50 


6 


,707 


.08 


Vs 


.283 


55 


65^ 


• 742 


.09 




,300 


60 


nXi, 


•775 


.10 


\% 


.316 


6-, 


7%: 


.8b6 


,12 


i^ 


•346 


70 


8% 


•837 


,14 


1% 


•374 


75 


9 


.866 


.16 


2 


.400 


80 


^% 


.894 


.18 


2^ 


,424 


a5 


'°Yi 


,922 


.20 


2^ 


•447 


90 


iiH 


•949 


•25 


\, 


.500 


95 


•975 


•30 


sVa 


,548 I 


00 


12 


1. 000 


•35 


aVx 


•592 









To determine the number of acres that a tile main of 
given size and grade will drain, multiply the discharge of 
the tiles, according to size (see Table i), by the square root 
of the grade upon which it is proposed to lay the main 
(Table 2), When it is desired that the main shall carry i 
inch in depth per acre in twenty-four hours, multiply this 
result by 24 ; if one-half inch, multiply by 48 ; if one-fourth 
inch, multiply by 96. (Farmers' Bulletin, No. 40.) 



AGRICULTURAL Eiq^GIN"EERI]S:G. 



165 



NU3IBER OF ACRES DRAINED BY TILES REMOVING 
1/4-INCH DEPTH OF WATER IN 24 HOURS. 

(ASHBAUGH.) 



Grades. 


Diameters of Tile Drains, Inches. 


Per 


In. per 
























cent. 


Rod. 


3 


4 


6 


8 


10 


12 


15 


1 8 


20 


22 


24 


0.03 
0.05 


1 










37 
49 


59 
75 


109 
131 


159 
219 


205 
264 


254 
332 


319 
411 




.■5 


13 


'28' 


0. 10 


# 


4 


7 


19 


40 


69 


109 


186 


289 


373 


471 


582 


0.15 


A 


4 


9 


24 


49 


85 


132 


232 


355 


458 


577 


713 


0. 20 


i 


5 


10 


28 


56 


97 


153 


264 


410 


529 


667 


823 


0.30 


A 


6 


12 


.^3 


69 


119 


188 


322 


502 


648 


808 


1008 


.40 


U 


7 


14 


39 


79 


138 


216 


371 


580 


748 


942 


1165 


0. 50 


I 


8 


16 


44 


89 


154 


246 


416 


648 


838 


1050 


1300 


0.60 


i^ 


9 


17 


48 


97 


169 


266 


457 


710 


911 


1154 


1422 


. 70 


li 


10 


19 


50 


105 


182 


287 


488 


768 


988 


1242 


1549 


o.So 


'V 


10 


20 


55 


114 


19s 


307 


526 


822 


1059 


1332 


164s 


0.90 


if 


10 


21 


^^ 


119 


207 


326 


558 


872 


1123 


1414 


1747 


1 .00 


2 


1 1 


22 


62 


126 


218 


343 


589 


917 


1176 


1495 


3838 


1.50 


3 


13 


28 


75 


153 


267 


419 


722 


1123 


1450 


1824 


2256 


2.00 


4 


15 


31 


88 


178 


309 


485 


832 


1297 


1676 


2110 


2594 


3.00 


n 


19 


39 


107 


216 


377 


593 


1020 


1589 


1957 


2592 




4. 00 


22 


45 


123 


253 


437 


683 


1176 










5.00 


9 ■ 


25 


SO 


138 


280 


486 


765 












7-50 


I4i 


30 


61 


169 


344 
















10.00 


iqM 


35 


71 


195 



















The table is based on Poncelet's formula, and refers to drain- 
age of ground water only. If surface water is also to be removed, 
as in the case of ponds without other outlets, the tiles will drain 
safely only one-half to one-third the number of acres given in 
the table. When a part of the land in the watershed is rolling, 
not requiring tiling, count only one-third of such rolling land 
in addition to all of the low, flat land, in getting the size of tiles 
to remove ground water only. 

If it is not practicable to use such a large tile as is required to 
carry a large amount of surface drainage, a broad shallow depres- 
sion, cultivated or kept in grass, may be maintained alongside 
of the drain to carry the surface overflow from heavy rains. A 
12-inch tile may thus often be used in place of the expensive 
iS-inch or 18-inch tile. 



166 



AGRICULTURE. 



NUMBER OF ACRES DRAINED BY OPEN DITCHES. 

Depth of Water, 3 feet. Depth of Ditch, at least 4 feet. 



Grades. 






Average Width of Water, Feet. 




Per 
cent. 


Feet 

mil. 


4 


6 


8 


10 


15 


20 


30 


50 




I.O 

2. 1 

3-2 

4.2 

5-3 

7.8 
10.6 

13-2 

15.8 
21 . I 

26.4 

31-7 
37.0 
42.2 
47-5 

52.8 






725 
1000 
1260 
1460 
1630 

2010 
2310 
2660 
2900 


970 
1360 
1690 
1950 
2180 

2670 

%7'2o 

5300 

5850 
6740 

16500 
17800 
I9IOO 

20100 


1570 

2250 

2770 


2240 


5300 
^7470 

18400 
21400 
23700 

30200 

35000 
39000 
42700 
49400 

55300 

60400 




.04 
.06 


400 
492 

572 
636 

791 

905 
1020 

IIOO 

1300 

1475 
1600 
1720 
1850 
1955 

2050 


690 
850 
980 

IIOO 

1330 
1560 
1740 
1970 
2290 

2559 
2790 
3010 


4700 
5770 
6670 
7440 


26100 
31900 


0.08 
0. 10 


4820 

5360 

6600 

7870 

17500 
19400 
22200 

24800 
27200 
29400 


37400 
41400 


0.15 
0. 20 
0.25 
. 30 


19000 

21800 
24600 

26800 
30800 

34800 
37600 
41200 


52100 
6030 
67700 
74000 


0.40 

0.50 
0.60 
0.70 


5050 

5620 
6230 
6650 

7170 
7550 

7980 


85700 

95200 


0.80 
0.90 

1 .00 


4850 
5140 

5400 





Depth of Water, 5 feet. 



Depth of Ditch, at least 6^ feet. 



Grades. 




Average Width of Water, Feet. 




Per 

cent. 


Feet 
per 
Mile. 


6 


8 


10 


15 


20 


30 


50 


0.02 


I . 

2. 1 

3- 2 
4.2 

5.3 

7.8 
10.6 

13-2 

15.8 
21 . I 

26.4 

31 .7 
37.0 
42. 2 
47.5 


980 
1390 
1710 
1980 
2220 

2720 


1470 
2090 
2560 
2980 


1900 

2800 


5000 

7 200 


7150 


23800 
33500 
40800 
48800 
54500 

66700 
77000 
86000 

94000 


43800 


.04 


20400 
24700 
30000 
33400 

40500 
47000 
53000 
57000 
67000 


62500 


. 06 
0.08 


5100 
6100 
7600 


I 7600 
20400 
23400 

28700 
33000 
37500 
40700 
47000 


75500 
88000 


0. 10 


5010 
6300 

16300 
I 7900 
20600 

23000 
25200 
27300 


98000 


o.iS 


171OO 
19500 
21900 
23900 
27700 

31000 
33900 


120000 


0. 20 
0. 25 
0. 30 
0.40 

0. 50 


4820 

S370 
5900 
6830 


139000 
155000 

170000 


0.60 
0. 70 
0.80 
0. 90 


16700 
18100 
19000 
20500 





AGRICULTURAL ENGIN"EERIN-G. 



167 



NUMBER OF ACRES DRAINED BY OPEN DITCHES- 

(Continued). 



Depth of Water, 7 feet. 



Depth of Ditch, at least 9 feet. 



Grade. 




Average Width of Water, 


Feet. 




Per 

cent. 


Feet 

me. 


8 


10 


15 


20 


30 


50 


0.02 


I .0 
2. 1 

3.2 
4.2 
5-3 

7.8 
10. 6 

13-2 

15.8 

21 . I 
26.4 


2300 


4700 
6740 


16600 
23400 
29600 
34200 
38400 

47200 
54200 
60500 
66200 


28000 
35400 
43400 
50000 
56000 

68500 
78700 
88000 
96500 


48000 
58000 
72000 
83000 
92600 

II 2000 
130000 
146000 


88500 


0.04 


4850 
5920 
6940 

7720 


106000 


0.06 
0.08 
0. 10 


17000 
19100 

21800 

27000 
31300 
34800 
38200 
44100 


129000 
150000 
167000 


0.15 
0. 20 
0.25 
0.30 
0.40 

0. 50 


19400 
22400 
25000 
27400 
31700 

35400 


202000 
235000 



Depth of Water, 9 feet. 



Depth of Ditch, at least iii feet. 



Grade. 


Average Width of Water, Feet. 


Per 
cent. 


Feet 
Mile. 


10 


IS 


20 


30 


50 


0.02 


i.o 
2 . 1 
3.2 
4.2 
5-3 

7.8 
10.6 
132 
15.8 
21 . I 


6550 


27800 
34400 
41600 
48300 
54000 

66100 
76200 
85300 
93200 


40800 
50000 
61000 
71000 
79100 

96200 
104000 
125000 


69500 

83500 

103000 

I 20000 

132000 

162000 


127000 


C.04 
0.06 
0.08 
0. 10 

o.iS 
0.20 
0.2s 
0.30 
0.40 


18500 
22600 
26300 
30400 

37300 
42900 
48000 
52500 
60800 


157000 
193000 
221000 
244000 

298000 



The above tables are calculated by Kutter's formula, using 
a "coefficient of roughness" equal to 0.03, as recommended for 
channels in moderately good condition, having stones and weeds 
occasionally. For ditches in first-class condition, the number 
of acres may be increased about 25 per cent. The tables have 



168 AGRICULTURE. 

been calculated for ditches having sides with slopes of one foot 
horizontal to one foot vertical, but are approximately correct 
for other slopes. 

The capacity of the ditches has been made as follows, the 
ditches to run not more than 8-10 full for the capacities men- 
tioned : 

Above the upper heavy line, J in. depth of water per 24 hours. 

Between the heavy lines, | in. depth of water per 24 hours. 

Below the lower heavy line, | in. depth of water per 24 hours. 

Local conditions may vary the size needed, and it is necessary 
to consult a drainage engineer in each case. 

ADVICE TO LAND OWNERS ABOUT TO CONSTRUCT 

DRAINS. (ASHBAUGH.) 

1. Employ a reliable drainage engineer to make surveys, and 
plan your system of drainage. Otherwise you are very liable 
to throw away part of your money. 

2. Require from your drainage engineer a complete map or 
plat of your drains, showing the exact location, sizes, grades, and 
depths. Remember that your drains will be out of reach (except 
at much cost and trouble) after they are covered. . 

3. Make your drains of ample size. Drains which are too 
small fail when you need them most, in wet seasons. 

4. Put your tile down to a good depth. Otherwise they will 
not draw well to any considerable distance. Make them four 
feet deep in the lowest ground if possible. The extra cost of 
good depth is small in proportion to the total cost. 

5. Have your drainage engineer inspect the work during 
construction and test the grades of the drains and see that the 
work is well done. Many tile become choked with mud because 
not laid true. 

6. Be sure to protect the outlet. Build a bulkhead wall of 
brick or stone to hold the end. Also use a piece of iron pipe at 
the end, if tile is not too large, or for large drains use a few feet 
of sewer -pipe cemented. 

7. If you are obliged to construct an open ditch, make it 
at least five to seven feet deep, if possible, to give good outlets 
for tile, and to avoid choking up. 



AGEICULTURAL EI^GIiq^EERIKG. 



169 



8. The bottoms of open ditches should be at least three feet 
wide, and the sides should be given slopes of at least one foot 
horizontal to one vertical to avoid choking. Dirt should not 
be piled near the edges of the bank. 

POINTS TO NOTE IN PLANNING A DRAINAGE SYSTEM. 

1. Character of the land, as swampy, low, sloping, dry, etc., 
also retentive or open, depth of surface soil, condition of sub- 
soil, etc. 

2. Acreage of various kinds just described, their location 
relative to drains, etc. 

3. The outlet, its character, capacity, depth, protection re- 
quired for tile, etc, 

4. Fall or grade for mains, submains, and laterals, with depth 
of cutting required. 

5. Various expedients, such as the use of cut-offs across necks 
of land, to save distance and gain fall. 

6. Your drainage engineer should be competent to handle 
these problems. 



SIZES OF DRAIN-PIPE REQUIRED FOR CULVERTS IN 
PROPORTION TO CAPACITY AND FALL. (Eldridge.) 







Fall in 100 Feet. 






3 Inches. 


6 Inches. 


, 9 Inches. 


6 inches 
8 " 


Gallons per Minute. 


129 


183 


224 


26s 


375 


460 


9 


355 


S03 


617 


10 


463 


655 


803 




730 


1033 


1273 


15 

18 " 


1282 


1818 


2224 


2022 


2860 


3508 


24 


4152 


5871 


7202 



170 



AGKICULTURE. 



AREAS FROM WHICH 1/4 INCH OF WATER WILL BE 
REMOVED IN 24 HOURS BY OUTLET TILE DRAINS OF 
DIFFERENT DIAMETERS AND LENGTHS WITH DIF- 
FERENT GRADES. (Elliott. ) 



Diam- 
eter of 
Tile in 
Inches. 



5 
6 
7 
8 
9 

lO 
12 

14 

i6 
i8 



Grade per loo ft. in Decimals of a Foot (with Approx. Equiv. 
in Inches). 



0.05 
(1 in.). 


0.08 
(i in.). 


O.IO 

(lAin.). 


0.12 
(liin.). 


0.16 
(2 in.). 




Length of Drain in Feet. 


' 


1000 


2000 


1000 


2000 


1000 


2000 


1000 


2000 


1000 


2000 


Acres of Land Drained. 



17-7 

28.0 

41. I 

57-3 

76.5 

99-5 

156. 1 

228.7 

317.8 

424.9 

551.6 



14.0 

22. 2 

32.7 

45-6 

61.2 

79-5 

124.9 

183.7 

255-9 

342.5 

444.9 



19. 

29. 

44. 

61. 

82. 
106, 
167 
245. 
341. 
456, 
591 



139. 

204. 

284. 

38] 

495- 



.7 

8 


19.8 
31.2 


4 
• 7 
. I 


45-9 
64.0 
85.6 


•5 
.3 
■3 


III . 2 
174.8 
256.1 


.0 


355.4 


.3 
.8 


475-7 
616.4 



16. 
26. 

38. 

53- 
72. 
94. 
147- 
217, 
302 . 
405. 
526, 



7 

4 32 

7 47 
9 66 
3 89 

01115 
9181 
4126s 
5,369 



7 640.4 



22. 

34- 

51- 

71. 

95. 

123 

194, 

284. 

396. 

529 

686. 



19.4 

30. S 

44.8 

62.6 

83.8 

108.9 

171. 6 

251.7 

350.4 

470.1 

610. s 



Diam- 
eter of 
Tile in 
Inches. 



5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

12 

14 

16 



Grade per 100 ft. in Decimals of a Foot (with Approx. Equiv. 
in Inches). 



0.20 
(2I in.). 


0.25 
(3 in.). 


0.30 
(3I in.).. 


0.40 
(4f in.). 


0.50 
(6 in.). 


Length of Drain in Feet. 


1000 


2000 


1000 


2000 


lood 


2000 


1000 


2000 


1000 


2000 


Acres of Land Drained. 



23-5 


20.9 


25.1 


22.7 


26.7 


24.5 


29.5 


27.5 


32.0 


37.0 


33.0 


39.6 


35-9 


42.0 


38.6 


46-4 


43.5 


50.5 


54.3 


48.5 


58.0 


S2.8 


61.6 


56.7 


68.2 


63-8 


74-0 


75-6 


67.7 


80.9 


73-6 


8s -S 


79-0 


95-0 


89.1 


103-3 


101.4 


90.7 


108.4 


98.6 


114. 9 


106.0 


127.0 


119. 4 


138. I 


131-6 


117. 9 


140.6 


128. 1 


149-3 


137.6 


IOS.2 


155.3 


179-2 


206.8 


185.6 


221 . I 


201 .8 


234. S 


216.9 


259.2 


244.1 


281.8 


302.5 


272.2 


323-5 


296. 1 


343-5 


318. I 


379.7 


3S8.2 


412.9 


420.6 


379.1 


449-9 


412.2 


477-4 


442.9 


527.8 


498.4 


573-7 


562. 2 


508.1 


601 .8 


552.5 


638.1 


593.7 


705.2 


668.0 


767-4 


729.2 


660.3 


780.0 


718.2 


826.9 


771 . 1 


914. 7 


867.8 


994-5 



30.3 
47.8 
70.1 
98.0 

131. 3 
170.5 
268.6 
393-9 

548-8 
735.1 
954.6 



Three feet of soil above the top of the drain has been assumed. 
The grade, length of drain, and openness of soil are important factors 
in the capacity of a tile drain for discharging soil-water. 



AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING. 



171 



RISP OF THE SLOPE FOR 100 FEET. (Waring.) 

Table I. gives the rise of the slope for loo feet of the horizontal 
measurement. 
Table II., the rise of the slope for loo feet of its own length. 



Table No. I. 


Table No. II. 


Deg. 


Feet. 


Deg. 


Feet. 


Deg. 


Feet. 


Deg. 


Feet. 


5 


8.749 


50 


119-175 


5 


8.716 


5° 


76.604 


lO 


17-633 


55 


142.815 


10 


17-365 


55 


81.915 


15 


26.795 


60 


173.205 


15 


25.882 


60 


86.602 


20 


36 -397 


65 


214.451 


20 


34.202 


bS 


90.631 


25 


46.631 


70 


274.748 


25 


42.262 


70 


93.969 


3^ 


57-735 


75 


373-205 


30 


50 


75 


96.593 


35 


70.021 


80 


567.128 


35 


57 358 


80 


98.481 


40 


83.910 


«5 


1143.010 


40 


64.279 


as 


99.619 


45 


100 






45 


70 711 







Exairiple. — If the horizontal measurement is 100 feet, and the slope is at 
an angle of 10°, the rise will be 17.633 feet. 

If the sloping line (at an angle of 15°) is 100 feet, it rises 25.882 feet. 



QU.VXTITY OF EARTH REMOVED PER ROD OF 
DRAINS OF VARIOUS DIMENSIONS. (Scott.) 













Mean Width of Drains 












In. 


In. 


In. 


In. 


In. 


In. 


In. 


In. 


In. 


In. 


In. 


In. 


°,r 


7 


8 


9 


10 




12 


13 


14 


15 


16 


^7 


18 














































u 








Cubic Yards. 


Q 










^Vi 


0.89 


1.02 


1. 14 


1.27 


1.40 


1-53 


1. 6s 


1.78 


1. 91 


2.04 


2.16 


2.29 


3 


1.07 


1.22 


1-37 


1-53 


1.68 


1.83 


1. 98 


2.14 


2.29 


2.24 


2.60 


2-75 


3^ 


1-25 


1.42 


1.60 


1.78 


i.q6 


2.14 


2.32 


2.49 


2.67 


2.85 


3-03 


3.21 


4 


1.42 


1.6, 


1.83 


2.04 


2.24 


2.44 


2.65 


2.85 


3-05 


3.26 


3-46 


3-66 


' 


1.78 


2.03 


2.29 


2.54 


2.80 


3 -05 


3-31 


3.56 


3.82 


4.07 


4-33 


4.58 



*' If a 4-ft. drain be cut 14 in. wide at top and 4 in. at bot- 
tom, the mean width will be 9 in., and the quantity of earth 
excavated in cutting each rod will be 1.83 cubic yards ; if 



172 



AGRICULTURE. 



the same drain be cut i8 in- at too and 8 in. at bottom, tne 
mean width will be 13 in., ana 2.65 cubic yards of earti 
will have to be removed in cutting each rod : so that if fne 
digging of the drain costs 6 cents per cubic yard of earth 
moved the narrow drain will cost it cents per rod, and the 
other nearly 16 cents per rod, showing the cost to be one 
half larger, quite unnecessarily. 

" The same table will be found useful in helping to fix the 
relative prices of deep and shallow drains ; but it must be 
recollected that the deeper drains will be increased in cost 
not only by reason of the greater quantity of earth which 
has to be moved, but also because of the increased labor of 
lifting the earth to the surface from a greater depth." 



LIMIT OF SIZE OF TILE TO GRADE AND LENGTH. 



Size of 


Minimum 


Limit of 


Size of 


Minimum 


Limit of 


Tile in 


Grade per 


Length in 


Tile in 


Grade per 


Length in 


Inches. 


100 Feet. 


Feet. 


Inches. 


100 Feet. 


Feet. 


3 


.09 


800 


8 


• 05 


3000 


4 


.05 


1600 





• 05 


3500 


5 


.05 


2000 


10 


• 04 . 


4000 


6 


.05 


2500 


1 1 


.04 


4500 


7 


• OS 


2800 


I 2 


.04 


5300 



RAINFALL. (McConnell.) 



Inches 


Cubic 


Imperial 


Tons 


Inches 


Cubic 


Imperial 


Tons 


of 


Feet 


Gallons 


per 


of 


Feet 


Gallons 


per 


Depth. 


per 


per 


Acre. 


Depth. 


per 


per 


Acre. 




Acre. 


Acre. 






Acre. 


Acre. 




I 


3,630 


22,635 


lOI . I 


7 


25,410 


158,444 


707.7 


2 


7,260 


45,270 


202. 2 


8 


29,040 


181,072 


808.8 


3 


10,890 


67,905 


303-3 


9 


32,670 


203,714 


909.9 


4 


14,520 


90,539 


404.4 


ID 


36,300 


226,349 


lOII .0 


5 


18,150 


113,174 


505. 5 


II 


39,930 


248,984 


1112. I 


6 


21,780 


135,809 


606.6 


12 


43,560 


271,619 


1213.2 



AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING. 



173 



TABLE SHOWING THE FORCE AND VELOCITY 
OF WIND. (Waring.) 



Miles 
per Hour. 


Feet 
per Minute. 


Lbs. Press- 
ure on 
I sq. ft. 


Description. 


1 

2 

3 

4 

1 
8 

lO 

15 

20 
25 

30 

35 
40 
45 

60 
80 

100 


88 
176 
264 
352 
440 
528 

Hi 
1320 
1760 
2200 
2640 
3080 
3520 
3960 
4400 
5280 
7040 

8800 


.005 
.020 J 

.320 
.500 t 

1.125 s 
2.000 

3-125 r 
4.500) 
6.125 ) 
8.000 J 

10.125 S 

12.500 
18.000 
32.000 

50.000 •< 


Barely observable. 

Just perceptible. 

Light breeze. 

Gentle, pleasant wind 

Brisk blow. 
Very brisk. 
High wind. 

Very high. 

Storm. 

Great storm. 

Hurricane. 

Tornado, uprooting trees, sweeping 

off buildings, etc. 



NUMBER OF SQUARE FEET AND ACRES THAT A 

First-class Windmill can Irrigate One Inch in 8 
Hours, Raising the Water lO, 15 or 25 Feet. 

(A. R. Wolff.) 





10 Feet. 


15 Feet. 


25 Feet. 


Size of Windmill. 








Sq. Ft. 


Acres 


Sq. Ft. 


Acres 


Sq. Ft. 


Acres 


8| ft. diam. of wheel.. 


11,736.34 


.269 


7,824.74 


.180 


4,744-74 


.109 


10 " " " " .. 


37,161.74 


.85s 


24,774-75 


•5^9 


14,767.83 


■339 


12 " *' " " .. 


66,765.16 


1-533 


44.509.85 


1.022 


26,134.57 


.600 


'4 " '• " " ■• 


85,982.05 


1.974 


57,321-11 


1. 316 


34,757-03 


.798 


16 " " " " .. 


120,106.14 


2.757 


80,070.76 


1.838 


49,742.00 


1. 142 


18 '• " " " .. 


192,446.10 


4.418 


123,164.58 


2.827 


75,215-14 


1.727 


20 " " " " .. 


238,395.08 


5-473 


158,930-31 


3-649 


90,211.50 


2.209 


25 " " " " .. 


410,038.09 


9-413 


273,359.24 


6.275 


163,533-37 


3-75- 


30 " " " .. 


831,686.24 


19.093 


561,197.56 


12.883 


331,752.96 


7.616 



174 



AGRICULTURE. 



tHu ut S^ % 



ooooooooooocooco 





o 

< 


Equivalent 
Actual Use- 
ful Horse- 
power 
Developed. 


Z 


l-NMOOHWOO'^h 
IH N N Tj-VO t^ m 






c 
rt 
o 

a 

3 

a 

i 

w. 
•o C 

5S 

TO 
o 

M 

c 
o 

O 


1 












i 






lO !> c^ t^ dv t^ 





8 






H 
S 




t^ 




vo j^;j>o^ ^op. 


\ 


vo CON o-^mo "T 
M vo invo lo^ invo 







M CO -T^O 0> N M 






O 


l^S^^^^'^ 


h3 


.vgSS.:?^j:^S, 


•3^'2 u V. w 


\0 VO vo vo VO vo VO ^0 




a 
.2 


1 










' 2 2 ^'S « ° N 








•- 




HH 


s=>>?g 



AGRICULTUKAL ENGINE EUING. 



175 



Expense 

per 
Horse- 
power, in 
cents 
per 
hour. 


q CO 0-00 <>-5 in N 
iniAcnioio-*4ro 


-a 

S. 
o 

Is 

2§ 

II 
< 

i 

s. 




' H N N ro 4 


Is 


? 3- ^ S- S- ^ 2 2 




o.^.^^.l^.^'o 


For Repairs 
and Depre- 
ciation {5% of 
first cost 

per 
annum). 


loovo mmioo »o 

* M M M fl 


For Interest on 
First Cost (first 
cost including 
cost of wind- 
mill, pump, and 
tower) at s% per 
annum. 


* W W M N 


Average 

Number of 

Hours 

Day 

During 

which this 

Quantity 

will be 

Raised. 


cooooooooooooooo 


Equiva- 
lent 
Actual-Use- 
ful 
Horse- 
power 
Developed. 


■^NMOOMMOI- 

q w N N -^vo tN. on 


Gallons 

of 

Water 

Raised 

25 Feet per 

Hour. 


Mvooovo M t^m 

fn M ^<» S^ ^ ^ 

M cf cT CO in cC cf 


1 








1 -KS>>>gS 



176 



AGRICULTURE. 



NOMINAL HORSE-POWER REQUIRED FOR THE 
DISCHARGE OF GIVEN QUANTITIES OF WATER 
WITH LIFTS OF 10 AND 30 FEET. (Scott.) 



Diameter of Pipe, 
Inches. 


Gallons 
Discharged per 


Nominal HP. 
required for a 


Nominal H.P. 
required for a 


Minute. 


lo-foot Lift. 


20-foot Lift. 


3 


lOO 


J 


3 


4 


2CX> 


iJ^ 


3 


5 


350 


2 


4 


6 


500 


=5^ 


5 


7 


759 


3 


6 


8 


1000 


4 


8 


lO 


1500 


6 


10 


12 


2300 


8 


14 


14 


2800 


10 


16 


15 


3300 


12 


20 


i8 


6000 


20 


35 



IRRIGATION. (Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.) 



A water right is the right or privilege of using water for 
irrigating purposes, either in a definite quantity or upon a 
prescribed area of land, such right or privilege being cus- 
tomarily acquired either by priority of use or by purchase. 
In many parts of the arid region a water right is an exceed- 
ingly valuable property. The average value of the water 
rights of the entire arid region, as determined by the cen- 
sus of 1890, was $26 per acre, and there are fruit-growing 
districts in California where water rights have been sold at 
as high as $1500 per miner's inch, or from $100 to 
$500 per acre, according to the amount used on any given 
area of land. 

The duty of zvater is the extent of the service it will per- 
form when used for irrigating purposes, that is, the num- 
ber of acres a given quantity of water will adequately irri- 
gate under .ordinary circumstances. This is usually from 
100 to 200 acres for each second-foot. W.J:iere water is 
abundant the duty has been known to be as low as 50 
acres, and where very scarce as high as 500 acres, to the 
second-foot. 



AGRICULTURAL ENGlKEERmG. 177 

A miner's inch is theoretically such a quantity of water as 
will flow through an aperture i inch square in a board 2 
inches thick under a head of water of 6 inches in one sec- 
ond of time, and it is equal to 0.194 gallon, or 0.0259337 
cubic foot, per second, or to 11.64 gal., or 1.556024 cubic ft., 
per minute. The amount of water flowing through a given 
aperture in a given time varies, however, with the head of 
water over the opening, and also with the form of the 
opening. In Colorado the miner's inch legalized by statute 
equals 11. 7 gal. per min. The California miner's inch, how- 
ever, equals only 9 gal. per min., loc Coloradg inches being, 
accordingly, equal to 130 California inches. One hundred 
Colorado inches will cover an acre to a depth of 5.2 ft. in 
24 hours ; 100 California inches will cover the same area 
only to a depth of 4 ft. in the same time. Fifty California 
inches are, therefore, approximately equal to i second- 
foot, and 50 Colorado inches equal to about three tenths 
more. 

An acre -foot of water is the amount required to cover an 
acre of ground to a depth of i foot. This is 43,560 cubic 
feet, or 325,851.45 gal. Its weight is 1213 tons 2113 pounds, 
at 2240 pounds to the ton. 

The amount of water required to cover an acre of ground 
to a depth of i inch is 3630 cubic feet, or 27,154.29 gal. Its 
weight is loi tons 362J pounds, at 2240 pounds to the 
ton. 

A second-foot is the most satisfactory because the most 
definite unit of measurement for flowing water. It is used 
by the U. S. Government in the gauging of rivers and 
streams, and is rapidly superseding the miner's inch in the 
measurement of water for irrigation. It is the quantity rep- 
resented by a stream i foot wide and i foot deep flowing 
at the average rate of i foot per second. In other words, 
it is I cub. ft. per second, 60 cub. ft. per min., 3600 cub. 
ft. per hour, etc. A stream flowing continuously at the 
average rate of i second-foot would carry in one day of 24 
hours 86,400 cub. ft., or 646,316.9 gal., sufficient to cover 
\W\ acres to a depth of i ft. Flowing continuously for one 
year of 365 days, such a stream would carry 31,536,000 cub. 



178 AGRICULTURE. 

ft., or 235,905,678.7 gal., sufficient to cover 723^^! acres tea 
depth of I ft. 

The sttb-humid region is the strip of country running 
north and south between the arid region, where irrigation 
is absolutely necessary to the successful prosecution of 
agriculture, and those portions of the United States in 
which the rainfall is usually sufficient for agricultural pur- 
poses. It includes portions of North Dakota, South Da- 
kota, Nebraska, Kansas, and Texas, and may be described 
as a region where irrigation is not always necessary, but 
where agricultural operations cannot, with any assurance 
of success, be undertaken without it. 

The average value of the irrigated land in farms in the 
United States was ascertained by the census of 1890 to be 
$83.28 per acre, and that of the non-irrigated land in farms 
$20.95 per. acre. 

The average annual value of the agricultural products of 
the irrigated land was ascertained to be $14.89 per acre irri- 
gated, and that of those of the non-irrigated land $6.80 for 
each acre improved. 

The average first cost of the irrigated land, including 
purchase money, water rights, etc., was ascertained to 
have been $8.15 per acre, and the average annual cost of 
the water supply $1.07 per acre. 

The total value of the irrigated farms of the United 
States, as reported by the farmers themselves, was, in round 
figures, $296,850,000, an increase of $219,360,000, or 283 per 
cent, upon their cost, including land, water right, fences, 
and preparation for cultivation. 

The total value of the productive irrigating systems was 
found to be $94,412,000, an increase of $64,801,000, r, stig 
per cent, upon their cost. 



AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING. 



179 



CARRYING CAPACITY OF PIPES, GALLONS PER 
MINUTE. (Wilcox.) 





— . 




__^. 


- . 


_ . 


-^- 


-^ 


-«• 






cf« 














Size of 


IX.0 


U.O 


t.0 


^R 


^0 


^R 


fr-R 


fc.R 


Pipe. 




X! - 


X! -' 


, 


u 


■ 2 ^ 


S >^ 


S V 






C (U 
















■T Q. 


7 a 


■T a 


7 a 


r a 


^ a 


"v a 


'V a. 














'^ 






3 inch. 


13 


19 


23 


32 


40 


46 


64 


79 


4 " 


27 


3S 


47 


66 


81 


93 


131 


163 


6 " 


75 


105 


i2g 


183 


224 


258 


364 


450 


8 " 


153 


216 


265 


375 


460 


527 


750 


923 


9 " 


205 


2QO 


355 


503 


617 


712 


1,006 


1,240 


lO 


267 


37« 


463 


655 


803 


926 


1,310 


1,613 


12 " 


422 


596 


730 


»,033 


1,275 


1.468 


2,076 


2,554 


15 " 


740 


1,021 


1,282 


1,818 


2,224 


2,464 


3,617 


4,467 


i8 " 


r,i68 


1,651 


2,022 


2,860 


3,508 


4,045 


5,704 


7,047 


24 " 


2.3q6 


3-387 


4,155 


5.874 


7,202 


8,303 


11,744 


14,466 


30 " 


4.187 


5.920 


7,252 


10,557 


12,580 


14,504 


20,510 


2.5,277 



FLOW OF WATER THROUGH STRAIGHT PIPES 

Flowing Full, in Gallons per Minute, 

(Collet.) 









Head of Water Divided by Le 


ngth of Pipe, 






1 

TOW 


3V 


^V 


1 
TO 


A 


t\ 


1^ 


T% 


1 










.024 
.056 


nnfi 


,oa6 


.06 


•077 
.158 


.086 












07 s 




o8q 


.124 


.18 


i'n 










.14 




21 




26 


•34 


•44 


•50 


i 










.31 

.83 




44 
2 




52 

5 


.72 
2.0 


.92 
2.6 


1.04 
2.9 


.22 


•33 




5 


1 


I 


i 


.46 


.70 


I 





1.8 


2 


5 


3 


I 


4.1 


5-3 


6.0 


i 


1-33 


1.98 


2 


9 


4 9 


7 


I 


8 


9 


II. 7 


15 


16.9 


1 


2.79 


4-15 


6 


7 


10 


14 


8 


18 


4 


24 


3^ 


35 


li 


4.96 


7-36 


10 


8 


r8 


26 


32 


42 


54 


61 


li 


7-93 


11.75 


17 


2 


28 


41 


51 


67 


86 


97 


If 


11.7 


17.4 


25 


S 


42 


61 


76 


100 


128 


144 


2 


16.6 


24 


.6 


59 


86 


106 


140 


179 


202 


2* 


29 


43 


63 


104 


151 


188 


246 


315 


354 


3 


46 


69 


101 


166 


240 


298 


390 


500 


562 


4 


98 


144 


210 


344 


498 


617 


808 


1033 


1162 


S 


•73 


254 


370 


606 


876 


1085 


1419 


1815 


2040 


6 


227 


404 


589 




959 


T389 




T720 




2248 


2876 


3230 



If the diameter be doubled, nearly 5.8 times the quantity can be passed 



180 



AGRICULTURE. 



POWER REQUIRED TO RAISE WATER FROM 
DEEP WELLS BY PUMPING. (Appleby.) 



Gallons of water raised per hour 


200 


350 


500 


650 


800 


1000 


Height of lift for one man, in feet. . . 

" '* " " donkey, in feet 

" " " " " horse, " 

" . " " " " H.P. steam, | 

in feet f 


630 

990 


51 

102 
357 
561 


36 

72 

252 

396 


28 
56 
196 

308 


22 

45 

154 

242 


18 
36 
126 

198 



APPROXIMATE COST OP DIFFERENT KINDS OF 
PIPE USED FOR IRRIGATION. (Wilcox.) 



1; W " 



o M> 






$0.41 

• 51 
.60 

.68 
•75 
•93 
1. 00 
1. 14 
1.30 
1.46 









$0.52 

.62 
.85 

.98 

1. 17 
1.25 
1.43 

1.63 
1.85 



CCQ 3 



u 



$0.72 J 

i.04i 

1.42 

1.84 

2.30 

2.83 

3-37 

3-97 

4.62 

5-33 



5 a 



$0 











|o 


74 
08 


1 


22 


I 


32 
40 



$0 



AVERAGE COST PER MILE OF CONSTRUCTING 
IRRIGATING CANALS AND DITCHES. 



(Eleventh U. S. Census.) 
1- 



States and Territories. 



General average 

Arizona 

Cah'fornia. . 

Colorado 

Idaho 

Montana 

Nevada 

New Mexico 

Oregon 

Utah 

Washington , 

Wyoming 

Sub-humid region... 



Under 5 Feet 
in Width. 



$481 



$471 
885 
380 
205 
325 
200 
3T0 
260 
493 
285 



5 to 10 Feet 
in Width. 



$1,628 



$1,674 

5i957 

1,131 

810 

800 

1,150 

581 

1,060 

1,025 

1,2^6 

837 

447 



10 Feet and 
Over in 
Width. 



$5,603 



$5,274 

15,511 

5,258 

1,320 

2,300 

* 6,666 
1,300 
3,072 
2.571 
3.884 



AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERIKG. 



181 



CAPACITIES OF WIND3IIL.L.S AND PUMPS. 

(Irrigation Age.) 

Sizes of Irrigation Mills and Pumps best Adapte 1 for 
each other to Work Successfully under Ordinary 
Conditions. 





a 


















a 


"aj 




x: 




■* 




•i- f^ 


g 


3 
0- u 


^ 


^ o 


"oS . 


"o^ 


o.S 


> 


u a 

■5.2 


i 

o 


II 


o 

t 




..J U U 

c <u^ 




c u ^ 

ill 


C rt ^ 


>Q 


tn 


Q 


Q ■ 


^ 


< 


< 


< 


< 


in 


Ft. 


In. 


Ft. and 
under. 


In. 


Gals. 


Gals. 


Gals. 


Acres. 


Feet. 



lo-foot Mills. 



8 


30 


10 


If 


3,660 


87,840 


6 


50 


10 


li 


2,580 


61,920 


4 


75 


10 


f 


1,320 


31,680 



12-foot Mills. 



'° 


30 


12 


4l 


7.500 


180,000 


103 


8 


50 


12 


3^ 


6,300 


151,200 


86 


6 


75 


12 


i^ 


2,700 


64.800 


37 


4 


125 


12 


i 


1,320 


31,680 


18 



90X75 
90X60 
60X40 
50X30 



14-foot Mills. 





12 


30 




65 


10,620 


254,880 


J 46 


125X80 




10 


50 




43 


7,260 


174,240 


100 


90X75 




8 


75 




2f 


4,620 


100,880 


63 


75X50 




6 


125 




If 


2,940 


71,560 


40 


65X40 




4 


175 




" 


1,680 


40,320 


23 


50 xy 



* Amount of land that can be covered i ft. deep with windmills work- 
ing at the rate of 15 hours per day for 300 days in the year. Acres cov- 
ered 1 ft. deep. 

+ Capable of holding water for 24 hours" continuous pumping. These 
sizes should have 4 ft. depth of water, height of bank 5 ft., width of base 
16 ft., 2 ft. of water below discharge-pipe not included. These reservoirs 
to connect with additional reservoir by overflow-pipe in order to utilize 
full capacity of mills and pumps. Overflow-reservoir should be of i- and 2- 
acre capacity, 8 ft. deep, banks 9 ft. high, base of bank 45 ft., acre size 
209 ft. on each side, corners rounded; 2-acre size 209 X 418 It. 



182 



AGRICULTURE. 



THE CALIFORNIA WEIR TABLE. (W.lcox) 



Dep-h. Mi 
^ Inc 


ner's 
hes. 


Depth. 


Miner's 
Inches. 


Depth. 


Miner's 
Inches. 


Depth. 


Miner's 
Inches. 


% 


01 


! 3% 


2.56 


7?-^ 


7.04 


12M 


1527 


'i 


04 


4 


2 


^9 


7H 


7.22 


13 


IS. 72 


07 


4V^ 


2 


8. 


7% 


7.40 


13M 


16.18 


H 


12 


aH 


2 


93 


8 


7-58 


13^ 


16.64 




17 


4% 


3 


07 


8^/^ 


7 76 


^M 


17.10 


3^ 


22 


4% 


3 


'9 


8 '4 


7-93 


14 


17.57 


% 


27 


M 


3 


33 


8% 


8.12 


14^4 


18.04 


I 


33 


4H 


.-( 


47 


81^ 


8.30 


i4V^ 


18.52 


x^ 


39 


aVs 


3 


61 


8^ 


8.48 


H% 


IQ.OO 




46 


' 5 


3 


75 


8^^ 


8.67 t 


15 


19.48 


1% 


54 


1 5^j 


3 


8q 


8% 


8.86 : 


15H 


19.98 


'V^ 


62 




4 


03 


9 


.9.05 


15!/^ 


20 47 


1% 


69 


sfl 


4 


18 


9^ 


9-23 


^s-M 


20.97 


1% 


77 


514 


4 


32 ! 


9^4 


9.42 


16 


21.47 


1% 


86 


5^^ 


4 


^7 i 


9=^8 


9 62 


i6l^ 


22 47 


2 


95 


5-H 


4 


62 


9V6 


9 81 1 


17 


23.50 


2^^ I 


04 


5!^ 




77 


9^ 


10.00 


17^^ 


-4-54 


2,'4 I 


'3 


' 6 


4 


g2 ; 


9M 


lo 19 


18 


25.58 


2=^ I 


22 


1 616 


5 


08 


9^^ 


10.39 


i8l^ 


26.65 


2^ 1 


32 


1 6 '.4 


5 


24 I 


10 


10 59 


19 


27.74 


• 1 ; 


42 


i 6-^ 


5 


39 1 


loM 


to 99 


T9V^ 


28.83 


52 


0/^ 


5 


54 1 


loH 


11 . 30 


20 


29-95 


63 


6^ 


5 


71 ! 


loM 


11.80 


20,V^ 


71.07 


3 I 


74 


6<4 


5 


87 


It 


12 22 


2( 


32.21 


3^ 


86 


65^ 


6 


04 


1 1 14 


12.65 


2.^ 


33-36 


3'^ ; 


97 


7 


6 


20 


I ij^ 


13 06 


22 


34-52 


08 


7^ 


6 


37 i 


11% 


13-3" 


22 l^ 


35-70 


3^^ 2 


19 


7 '-4 


6 


5? 


12 


'3-94 


23 


36 go 


35/i 


31 


7% 


6 


70 , 


I2I4 


14.^8 


23^ 


38.ro 


3M 


43 


7H 

i 


6 


8, 1 


12^ 


14.82 


24 


39-32 



CAPACITY OF CISTERNS AND TANKS, 
ill Gallons, for Each Twelve Inches in Depth. 

(A. R. Wolff.) 



Diameter in 


Gallons. 


Diameter in 


Gallons. 


Diameter in 


Gallons. 


Feet. 




Feet. 




Feet. 




I.O 


5.87 


6.5 


248.23 


II. 


710,90 


2.0 


23.50 


7.0 


287.88 


11. 


777.05 


2.5 


36.72 


7-5 


330.48 


12.0 


846.03 


3.0 


52.88 


8.0 


376.00 


13.0 


992.91 


3.5 


71.97 


8.5 


424.48 


14.0 


1151.54 


4.0 


94-?° 


9.0 


475.89 


15.0 


1321.92 


4.5 


118.87 


9-5 


530.24 


20.0 


2350.08 


5-0 


146.88 


10.0 


587.52 


25.0 


3672.00 


1*5 


177.72 


10.5 


647.74 


30.0 


5287.68 


6.0 


211.51 











AGKICULTURAL ENGINEERING. 



183 



Capacity of Cisterns in Barrels, Per Foot in Depth. 

(Hall.) 



Square Cistern. 

Barrels. 

5 feet by s feet holds S-92 

6 " " 6 " " 8.54 

7 " " 7 :: " 11.63 

8 " " 8 " " 15.19 

9 " " 9 " " 19-39 

10 10 * 23-74 



Circular Cistern. 









Barrels. 


5 feet in 


diameter holds. 


... 4.66 


6 » " 




" 


... 8.54 


(( IC 




** 


... 11.63 


8 ♦• « 






... 15.19 


" « 


♦* 


'♦ 


... 19.39 


10 " « 


«* 


It 


... 23.74 



KOAD-MAKING. (Campbell.) 

Drainage. — Perfect drainage, first of the foundation of 
the roadbed, secondly of the road surface, are the points 
in road-making on which too much stress cannot be laid. 

The first is accomplished by underdrainage, tile drains 
being laid at a depth of three or more feet below the sur- 
face on each side of the roadbed at the foot of the grade 
and parallel to it. Care should be taken to fit and settle 
the tile in the trench so that, when refilling with earth, 
they will not be displaced. As a rule 2^- to 4-in. tile will 
be sufficient. The joints should be close, and the grade 
a true line. Loose joints and an uneven grade allow silt to 
pass into the tile and remain there, destroying the drain. 

Surface drainage is accomplished by open drains on each 
side of the grade, having sufficient capacity to drain, both 
the roadbed and the land adjoining. With open drains and 
with tile drains make and maintain a free outlet to the 
nearest watercourse. A drain without an outlet is useless. 

Crowning the Road. — The graded portion of the road 
should be wide enough to accommodate the travel upon it, 
and not greater, the slope being uniform, not heaped in 
the centre. The crown should be well above the overflow 
of storm water, and should have a grade sufficient to shed 
water readily to the open ditches on either side. Do not 
round it up so as to make the grade steep and dangerous, 
under the mistaken impression that better drainage will 
thereby be secured. Nor should it be so low as to allow 
water to stand upon it in depressions. Under ordinary 
circumstances one inch or one inch and a half to the foot is 



184 



AGRICULTURE. 



a proper grade; that is, a roadbed twenty-six feet wide 
should be from thirteen to twenty inches higher at the 
center than at the side. 

Quality of Gravel. — The gravel should preferably be 
sharp, clean, and of uniform size. Pit gravel usually con- 
tains too much earthy matter, and where the latter is in 
excess, the gravel, as a road-making material, is useless. 
Lake gravel is apt to be rounded, water-worn, and lacking 
in the necessary earthy matter to make a solid and compact 
surface, but is generally a better road material than pit 
gravel. A coating of pit gravel with a surfacing of creek 
gravel is a good combination. All large stones should be 
removed, as they will work to the surface, and will then 
roll loosely or form rough protuberances. 

Placing the Gravel. — The gravel should be spread evenly 
over the surface of the sub-grade to a depth of six or eight 
inches, and to the required width, then rolled with a heavy 
roller. Rolling should be performed in showery weather, 
as it is impossible to consolidate dry earth or gravel. The 
heavier the roller the better will be the results, but if a 
heavy roller cannot be obtained, a light roller is much bet- 
ter than none. The roller should be passed over the sur 
face until the gravel or earth is so compact as not to be 
displaced and rutted by the wheels of a wagon passing 
over it with an ordinary load. The surface must be main- 
tained smooth and hard, to shed water and resist wear. 
Every municipality should have a roller, but whether one 
can be obtained or not the gravel should not be left in a 
heap just as it falls from the wagon. Spread it evenly. 

Repairs. — Gravel roads already constructed will need re- 
pair. By the use of road machinery, scrape the surface 
and cut off the corners, which will have formed at the foot of 
the grade by the washing down of dusty material from the 
crown of the road. Loosen the surface, particularly that 
part of the traveled portion and where the road is rutted, 
with picks, or, if possible, with road machinery ; then apply 
a coating of gravel, and roll thoroughly. It is of more im- 
portance, however, to see that the drains are not obstructed 
in their course and that their outlets are free and open.* 

* See Farmers' Bulletin, No. q;, "Good Roads for Farmers," Washing 
ton, 1899. 



AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING. 



LS5 



IMPORTANCE OP GOOD ROADS. 

It is estimated that it costs a farmer more to haul a bushel of 
wheat than it does a railroad to haul a ton ; that our poor roads 
cost the farmer at least $15.00 a year for every horse, and that 
good earth roads would save more than half the cost of hauling, 
and good permanent roads more than three quarters of it. 

(GlLMORB.) 

Force Required to Draw a Load on Different Kinds of Roads. 





Force 
Required to 
Draw a Gross 

Load of 
2240 Pounds. 


Steepest 
Grade (rise 
per 100 ft.) 

on which 
Vehicle will 

not Roll 
Back. 


Draught on a Level Com- 
pared with that on Dif- 
ferent Grades. Rise in 
feet per 100 feet. 







3 


6 


9 


12 


15 


Earth road 

Gravel " 

Macadam road... 
Telford " ... 
Plank " ... 
Stone trackway.. 


Pounds 
200 
i43i 

46 

41 

12J 


Feet 
6.4 

2.Q 
2.0 

1.8 
•5 




1-3 

1-5 
2.0 

6.4 


^•7 
1.9 
3.1 
3-9 
4-3 
II. 7 


2.0 
2.4 
4.1 
5-4 
5-9 
17. 1 


2.3 
2.9 

5-1 
6.8 
7-5 
22.3 


2.7 

i:? 

8.2 
9.1 
27-5 



TRACTIVE FORCE REQUIRED FOR CARRIAGES 

of one ton, on a level road. (McConnell.) 

Force of Trac- 
Description of Road. tion per Ton, 

1. On rails 8 lbs. 

2. Well-made pavement 33 " 

3. Macadamized road 44 to 67 " 

4. Turnpike, hard and dry 68 " 

5. " dirty 88 " 

6. Hard compact loam 119 " 

7. Gravel 150 " 

8. Sandy and gravelly 210 " 

9. Ordinary by-road 237 " 

10. Turnpike, newly-gravelled 320 " 

11. Loose sandy road 457 ** 

A horse produces his greatest mechanical effect in drawing a 

load 2^ miles per hour with a tractive force of 150 lbs. 



18G 



AGRICULTURE. 



FRACTION OF THE WEIGHT OF A VEHICLE 
AND LOAD REQUIRED TO MOVE SAME ON A 
LEVEL ROAD. iMorin.) 







Character of the Vehicle. 




Character of the Road. 


XI oj 




4-horse Stage- 
coaches, 
on Springs. 


2-horse Car- 
riages. 
Body on 
Springs. 


Firm soil, covered with gravel 
4 to 6 inches deep 

Firm embankment, covered 

• with gravel i^ to i^ inch. deep. 

Earth embankment, in very 
good condition . . 

Bridge flooring of thick oak 
plank 




h 


1 


1 


Broken-stone Road : 
In very good condition, very 

dry, compact and even 

A little moist or a little dusty.. 
Firm, but with ruts and mud. 
Very bad, ruts 4 to 4I inches 

deep, thick mud 






Walk. 


Trot. 

1 


Walk. 


Trot. 

i 

1^0 


Good pavement, dry 

" " covered with 
mud 






■4h 


3^3 







TRACTIVE POWER OF HORSES AT DIFFERENT 
SPEED. (Trautwine.) 

The average traction of a horse on a level and actually 
pulling for ten hours in the day may be assumed as follows: 



Miles per hour. 


Lbs. Traction. 


Miles per hour. 


Lbs. Traction. 


i 


333-33 


2i- 


III. II 


I 


250 


2i 


100 


li 


200 


2i 


90.91 


ij 


166.66 


3 


83.33 


If 


142.86 


3i 


71-43 


2 


125 


4 


62.50 



If the horse works for a smaller number of hours, his 
traction may increase as the hours diminish, down to about 
5 hours per day and for speeds of about from i^ to 3 miles 
per hour. 



AGRICULTURAL EN^QIKEERIN"G. 



187 



EFFECT OF INCLINATION ON TRACTIVE FORCE. 

(U. S. Department of Agriculture.) 



Rate of 
Inclination. 


Angle with the 
Level. 


Tractive Force, 
Pounds. 


Equivalent 
Length of Level 
Road in Miles. 


Le^'el. 


0° 00' 00" 


38 


1,00 


I in 500 


6 53 


42 


1. 10 


I in 100 


34 23 


58 


1.52 


I in 80 


42 58 


63 


1.66 


I in 60 


57 18 


71 


1.87 


I in 50 


I 08 16 


78 


2.05 


I in 40 


I 25 57 


88 


2.30 


I in 30 


I 54 37 


104 


2.73 


I in 25 


2 17 26 


118 


3.10 


I in 20 


2 51 21 


138 


3.63 


I in 15 


3 48 51 


171 


4-So 


I in 10 


5 42 58 


238 


6.26 



The table gives the tractive force necessary to draw i ton 
over the best macadam road of various grades, and the 
equivalent length of each mile of grade in miles of level 
road. 

The effect of the inclination can be calculated from the 
following formula: 

R = F-\- aW, 

where F = force required to draw the load on the level, 
a = the grade, expressed by a fraction, IV= the weight of 
the load in pounds, R = force required to draw the load up 
the incline in question. 

According to Gillespie, if a horse can pull on a level 
1000 pounds, on a rise of 



1 foot in 

100 feet he draws 900 lbs. 
50 " •' " 810 " 
44 " " " 750 " 
40 " " ** 720 " 
30 •' " " 640 " 



I foot in 

25 feet he draws 540 lbs. 
24 " " " 500 " 
20 " " ** 400 " 
10 " " '• 250 ♦• 



188 



AGRICULTURE. 



EFPECTS OF SURFACE ON TRACTIVF FORCE, 

(Various Authoruies, compiled by Hekking ) 



Description of Road. 



Loose sand 

Loose gravel (deep) . . 
Loose gravel (4 inches) 
Common gravel road .. 

Good gravel 

Hard-rolled gravel 

Ordinary dirt road 

Hard clay 

Hard, dry dirt road 

Macadam, little used. . 

Macadam, bad . . 

Macadam, poor 

Macadam, common ... 
Good macadam, wet .. 
Best French macadam. 



Tractive 
Force, 
Lbs. 



320 
222 



75 
224 
112 

89 

140 to 97 

160 

J12 

64 
75 t.o 42 

45 



Description of Road. 



Very hard and smooth 

macadam 

Best macadam 

Cobblestone, ordinary ... 

Cobblestone, good 

Belgian block 

Belgian block in Paris . . . 

Belgian block, good 

Stone block, ordinary .... 

Stone block, good 

Stone block, London 

Asphalt 

Granite tramway 

Iron railway 



Tractive 
Force, 
Lbs. 



46 

52 to 32 

140 

75 
56 to 26 
54 to 34 

34i 

90 

45 

36 

17 
i2i to I3i. 
8 to iii 



The velocity is in all cases taken at 3 miles per hour. 

COST OF HAULING FARM PRODUCE IN THE 
UNITED STATES. 





jc 


^ 


tc 


-i 




a 


-^^d 

^-^ 


si 


m 

tn 1-. _. 






^oK 




o-S 




rtffi 


cfl 1-4 


rt a 


^ ca 




5:0 


u-t 


s^ 


SH.4 




< 


< 


< 


H 




Miles. 


Lbs. 


Cents. 




K.a^tprn States.... .... 


11 


2216 


32 
27 


$1.89 


Northern States 


1.86 




8.8* 
12.6 


1397 


3^ 
25 




Cotton States 


3-05 


Prairie States . 


8.8 
233 

12. 1 


2409 
2197 


22 
22 


1.94 


Pacific Coast and Mountain States 


5.12 


Averages for the United States, . . . 


2003 


25 


$3.02 



* Middle States. 



The total weight of farm products in 1895 was estimated 
at 219,824,227 tons ; if the forest products hauled over the 
public roads be added to this, we get 313.349. 227 tons, 
which at $3.02 per ton, makes a total for the annual cost of 



AGRICULTURAL EXGINEERING. 



189 



hauling on the public roads of $946,414,665. Nearly, if not 
quite, two-thirds of this vast expense may be saved by road 
improvement, and this at a total cost not exceeding the 
losses of 3, or at most 4, years by bad roads (Circ. ig, Office 
of Road Inquiry, U. S. Dept. Agr.). 

TRAXSPORTATIOX ON THK FAR3I. (U. S. Dept. Agr.) 
An ordiiiarv wagon drawn by two horses will carry at 
each load i ton to i^ tons of hay, grain, manure, etc , over 
a good road; with four horses, 3-4 tons. According to dis- 
tance, the number of loads in a day should be as follows: 

Number of Lohds Hauled per Day. 
r\^ „^^ No. if Loads with t^-. ,^^ No. of Loads with 

Distance. ^iox^^^. Oxen. Distance. v^ox^^^. Oxen. 

Eighth mile 16-18 14-16 Half mile 10-14 8-12 

Quarter mile 12-16 10-14 Mile to mile and a half. 6-9 5-7 

LABOR ONE HORSE IS ABLE TO PERFORM 

at different rates of speed on canals, railroads, and 
turnpikes. (Drawing force, 83^ lbs.) (Waring.) 







Useful Effect for i Day, drawn i mile. 




Duration of 
Day's Work, 




Speed per 








Hour, miles. 


hours. 


On a Canal, 


On a Railroad, 


On a Turnpike, 






tons. 


tons. 


tons. 


2^ 


"^ 


520 


"S 


14 


3_ 


8 


243 


92 


12 


z^A 


6 


154 


82 


ID 


4 


A%, 


102 


72 


9 


5 


2 9/10 


52 


57 


7-3 


6 


2 


30 


48 


6 


7 


ij^ 


19 


41 


5 


8 


i}^ 


12.8 


36 


4-5 


9 


9/10 


9 


32 


4 


10 


M 


6.5 


28.8 


3.6 



PERFORMANCE OF ONE TEAM AND PLOUGH IN 
A DAY, IN ACRES AND TENTHS. (Waring.) 



VH '- 




^ «= 




^ c 




<*- ^ 




2^^ 




°«s 




°-«- 




"^ . 




m 


Acres. 


5 ^A 


Acres. 




Acres. 




Acres. 


^>2'" 




^^'" 




^3 




^1 




5 


I.O 


12 


2.4 


2 


4.8 


sVi 


132 


6 


1.2 


14 


2.8 


2^ 


6.0 




14.4 


7 


1.4 


16 


3-2 


3 


7.2 


6^ 


15.6 


8 


1.6 


18 


3-6 


33^ 


8.4 


7 


16.8 


9 


1.8 


20 


4.0 


4 


9.6 


7^ 


18.0 


10 


2.0 


22 


4-4 


4^ 


10.8 


8 


19.2 


II 


2.3 






5 


12.0 







190 



AGRICULTUKE. 



THE EFFECT OF WIDE WAGON-TIRES. 

The effect of wide and narrow tires' for wagons Is well 
illustrated by the following results of carefully conducted 
experiments by the Studebaker Wagon Co., South Bend, 
Ind. In the trials given in the second column li-inch tires 
had been substituted for 4-inch tires. (Agr. of Pa., 1894; 
see also Mich. Exp. Sta., Bull. 165; Mo. Exp. Sta., Bull. 13, 
and Utah Exp. Sta., Bull. 4.) 



Weight of wagon and load 

Draft to start load on block pavement. . . 

Draft to mov° load at a dead pull on block pave- 
ment 

Draft to start load on good hard, sandy road 

Draft to move load at a dead pull on good hard, 
sandy road 

Draft to start load on good level gravel road 

Draft to move load at a dead pull on good level 
gravel road 

Draft to start load on muddy road 

Draft to move load at a dead pull on muddy road.. 



Width 


of Tires. 


4 inches. 


t^ inches. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


4345 


4235 


350 


300 


100 


75 


700 


725 


275 
600 


300 
650 


175 
800 


175 
900 


550 


500 



AVERAGE QUANTITY OF STONE REQUIRED PER 
YEAR TO KEEP 10 FEET OF ROAD, WIDTH = 
20 FEET, IN REPAIR. (Herschel.) 



Cub. ft. Cub. yds. 



1. Good material and heavy travel 15-20 = 

2. Good material and medium amount of 

travel 10-15 = 

3. Good material and light travel 5- 10 = 

4. Medium material and heavy travel 20-25 = 

5. Medium material and medium amount 

of travel 15-20 = 

6. Medium material and light travel 10-15 = 

7. Third-rate material and heavy travel. . 25-30 = 

8. Third-rate material and medium amount 

of travel 20-25 = 

o. Third-rate material and light travel. . . 15-20 = 



'55- -74 



.37- 


.55 


.18- 


•37 


.74- 


.92 


.55- 


.74 


.37- 


•55 


.92-1 


.10 


.74- 


.92 


.55- 


.74 



AGRICULTURAL EKGTNEERING. 



191 



INTERIOR DIMENSIONS OF FARM BUILDINGS. 

(McCONNELL.) 



Barn 

" (straw) 

Cattle feeding-boxes, double 

" " " single 

Cattle-sheds, for each animal 

Cart-sheds, etc., each arch 

Cow-stable, for each cow, double 

" " " " " single 

Dairy . . .' 

Fold -yards, for each animal 

Granary 

Hospital 

Manure-house 

Pigsties, for each 3 animals 

Poultry- house 

Root-house 

Stable, for each horse 

Workshop 

General dimensions of other apartments 



Length, 


Breadth. 


ft. 


ft. 


40 


20 


60 


20 


10 


20 


10 


10 


5 


15 


8 


20 


4 


30 


4 


20 


20 


20 


5 


30 


30 


20 


18 


18 


18 . 


18 


6 


10 


18 


18 


30 


20 


6.5 


18 


18 


18 




18 



Height. 



6^ ft. allowed to the length of the stable for each horse in it 
and 7 or 8 ft. for every pair of cows in cow-stable. Horses 
must each have 1200 cu. ft. of space, and cattle 800 cu. ft., 
where stalled in stables. Cattle-boxes to be sunk 2 ft. below 
surface and raised by a dwarf wall i ft. above. Cattle-folds 
and sheds should have a length of 5 ft. for every animal they 
are intended to contain; when covered, 150 sq. ft. .allowed to 
every head. The pigsties have small open areas attached to 
each. 



RECIPE FOR WHITEWASH. 

Slake half a bushel of unslaked lime with boiling water, 
cover during the process to keep in steam, strain the liquid 
through a fine sieve or strainer, and add to it a peck of 
salt, previously dissolved in warm water, three pounds of 
ground rice boiled to a thin paste and stirred in while hot, 
half a pound of Spanish whiting, and one pound of clear 
glue, previously dissolved by soaking in cold water and 
then hanging over a slow fire in a small pot hung in a larger 



192 



AGRICULTUEE. 



one filled with water. Add five gallons of hot water to the 
mixture, stir well, and let it stand a few days, covered from 
dirt. It should be applied hot, for which purpose it can be 
kept in a kettle or portable furnace. The east end of the 
White House in Washington is embellished by this white- 
wash. It is recommended by the government for white- 
washing light-houses. 

A pint of this wash mixture, if properly applied, will 
cover one square yard, and will be almost as serviceable as 
paint for wood, brick, or stone, and is much cheaper than 
the cheapest paint. 

Coloring matter may be added as desired. For cream 
color add yellow ochre; pearl or lead, add lampblack or 
ivory-black ; fawn, add proportionately four pounds of 
umber to one pound of Indian red and one pound of com- 
mon lampblack; common stone color, add proportionately 
four pounds raw umber to two pounds lampblack. 



TABLE OF CUT NAILS. (Trautwine.) 





Name. 


Length, 
Inches, 


No. per' 
Lb. j 


Name. 


Length, 
Inches. 


No. per 
Lb. 


" Common " nails 


2-penny 


1 


7i6 


lo-penny 


3 


66 




3- " fine 


H 


626 


12- " 


3i 


50 




3- " 


H 


440 


20- " 


4 


32 




4- " 


i^ 


300 j 


30- " 


4^ 


19 




5- " 


i| 


210 


40- ' 


5 


16 




6- " 


2 


163 


50- " 


5i 


13 




7- " 


2} 


123 


60- " 


6 


10 




8- " 


^i 


93 ! 








Finishing-nails... 


4-penny 


H 


470 


10-penny 


3 


84 




5- " 


If 


330 


12- '■ 


3i 


65 




6- " 


2 


.96 


20- " 


4 


50 




8- " 


2i 


1x6 

280 








Slating-nails 


3-penny 


li 


5-penny 


If 


160 




4- " 


Ij 


200 


6- " 


2 


128 


Fence-nails 




2 


80 




2f 


48 




2i 


66 




3 


40 






2i 


60 








Cut spikes .... 




3 

3i 


29 




5^ 


8 






21 




6 


7 






4 

5 


IS 

',1 




' 6i 


6 








7 
8 


c: 








3i 



HUMAN FOODS. 193 



XII. HUMAN FOODS. 

COMPOSITION OF HUMAN FOOD MATERIALS.* 

(Atwater.) 

Ordinary food materials, such as meat, fish, eggs, pota« 
toes, wheat, etc., consist of — 

Refuse. — As the bones of meat and fish, shells of shellfish, 
skin of potatoes, bran of wheat, etc. 

Edible Portion. — As the flesh of meat and fish, the white 
and yolk of eggs, wheat flour, etc. The edible portion con- 
sists of water and nutritive ingredients or nutrients. 

The principal kinds of nutritive ingredients are protein^ 
fats, carbohydrates, and miner xl matters. 

The water, refuse, and salt of salted meat and fish are 

called non-nutrients. In comparing the values of different 

food materials for nourishment they are left out of account. 

Classes of Nutrients. — The following are familiar examples 

of compounds of the four principal classes of nutrients. 

{ Albu77iinoids, e.g., albumen (white of 
I eggs); casein (curd)of milk; myosin, 
the basis of muscle (lean meat) ; 
Proteids. \ gluten of wheat, etc. 

I Gelatinoids, e.g., collagen of tendons; 
ossein of bones; which yield gelatin 
Protein. \ y or glue, etc. 

Meats and fish contain very small quantities of 
so-called '^ extractives." They include kreatin 
and allied compounds, and are the chief ingre- 
dients of beef-tea and meat-extract. They 
contain nitrogen, and hence are commonly 
classed with protein. 
Fats, e.g., fat of meat ; fat (butter) of milk ; olive-oil ; oil 

of corn, wheat, etc. 
Carbohydrates, e.g., sugar, starch, cellulose (woody fiber), etc. 
Mineral matters, e.g., phosphate of lime, sodium chlorid (com- 
mon salt), etc. 

* Extracts from ' Foods, Nutritive Vaiue and Cost " (Farmers' Bulletin No. 
23), and " Food and Diet " (U. S. Dept. of Agriculture Year Book, 1894). See 
also Farmers' Bull. No. 142, and-Circ. No. 46, Rev., Ofl5ce of Exp. Stations. 



104 AGRICULTURE. 

The Fuel Value of Food. — Heat and muscular power are 
forms of force or energy. The energy is developed as 
the food is consumed in the body. It is measured in the 
laboratory by means of an apparatus called the calorimeter. 
The unit commonly used is the calorie, the amount of heat 
which would raise the temperature of a pound of water 
4° F. Instead of this unit, some unit of mechanical energy 
may be used, e.g., the foot-ton, which represents the force re- 
quired to raise i ton i foot. One calorie is equal to very nearly 
1.53 foot-tons. 

The following general estimate has been made for the average 
amount of potential energy in i pound of each of the classes of 
nutrients : 

Calories. 

In I pound of protein 1,814 

In I pound of fats 4, 03 7 

In I pound of carbohydrates 1,814 

In other words, when we compare the nutrients in re- 
spect to their fuel values, their capacities for yielding heat 
and mechanical power, a pound of protein of lean meat or 
albumen of &%% is just about equivalent to a pound of 
sugar or starch, and a little over two pounds of either 
would be required to equal a pound of the fat of meat or 
butter or the body fat. 

Ways in tvJiich Food is Used in the Body. — Food supplies 
the wants of the body in several ways. It either — 

Is used to form the tissues and fluids of the body; 

Is used to repair the wastes of tissues; 

Is stored in the body for future consumption; 

Is consumed as fuel, its potential energy being trans- 
formed into heat or muscular energy, or other forms of 
energy required by the body; or, 

In being consumed protects tissues or other food from 
consumption. 

Uses of the Different Classes of Nutrients. — Protein forms 
tissue (muscle, tendon, etc., and fat) and serves as fuel. 

Fats form fatty tissue (not muscle, etc.) and serve as fuel. 

Carbohydrates are transformed into fat and serve as fuel. 



HUMAN FOODS. 195 

All nutrients yield energy in form of heat and muscuiai 
strength. 

In being themselves burned to yield energy the nutrients 
protect each other from being consumed. The protein and 
fats of body tissue are used like those of food. An impor- 
tant use of the carbohydrates and fats is to protect protein 
(muscle, etc.) from consumption. 

Definition of Food and Food Economy. — The views thus 
presented lead to the following definitions: (i) Food is 
that which, taken into the body, builds tissues or yields 
energy; (2) the most healthful food is that which is best 
fitted to the wants of the user; (3) the cheapest food is that 
which furnishes the largest amount of nutriment at the 
least cost; (4) the best food is that which is both most 
healthful and cheapest. 

We have, then, to consider the kinds and amounts of 
nutrients in different food materials, their digestibility, and 
the kinds and amounts needed for nourishment by people 
doing different kinds of work. 

In general, the animal foods have the most of protein 
and fats, while the vegetable foods are rich in the carbo- 
hydrates, starch, and sugar. The lean meats and fish 
abound in protein. Cheese has so large a quantity of 
protein because it contains the casein of the milk. Among 
the vegetable foods, beans and peas have a high proportion 
of protein. The proportion in oatmeal is also large. In 
wheat it is moderate, and in corn meal it is rather small. 
The materials with the highest fuel value are those with 
the most fat, because the fuel value of the fat is, weight 
for weight, two and one-fourth times as great as that of 
either sugar, starch, or protein. Hence fat pork and butter 
lead the other materials in fuel value. The fat meats in 
general stand high in this respect. So also do the grains, 
flour, and meal, as they have large quantities of carbo- 
hydrates. Potatoes are quite low in the list in respect to 
fuel value as well as protein, principally because they are 
three-fourths water. For the same reason, milk, which is 
seven-eighths water, ranks low in respect to both protein 
and fuel value. 



196 



AGRICULTURE. 



Dietaries and Dietary Standards. — As the outcome of 
a great deal of observation and experiment, nearly all in 
Europe, standards have been proposed for the amounts 
of nutrients and energy in the daily food required by 
different classes of people. Those of Prof. Voit, of Munich, 
Germany, are most commonly accepted by specialists in 
Europe. Voit's standard for a laboring man at moderately 
hard muscular work calls for about 0.25 pound of protein 
and quantities of carbohydrates and fats sufficient, with 
the protein, to yield 3050 calories of energy. Taking into 
account the more active life in the United States, and the 
fact that well nourished people of the working classes here 
eat more and do more work than in Europe, and in the 
belief that ample nourishment is necessary for doing the 
most and the best work, I have ventured to suggest a 
standard with 0,28 pound of protein and 3500 calories of 
energy for the man at moderate muscular work. (For list 
of dietary standards, see p. 203; also Farmers' Bull., No. 142, 

p. 35-) 

Calculation of Daily Dietaries. — Due regard for health, 
strength, and purse requires that food shall supply enough 
protein to build tissue and enough fats and carbohydrates 
for fuel, and that it shall not be needlessly expensive. 

On the basis of the standards for dietaries given on 
page 175, various combinations of food materials for daily 
dietaries may be made by calculations from the table, 
showing percentages of nutrients, etc., in food materials 
(p. 169). Thus if a dietary for a man at moderately hard 
muscular work is to be made up of round beefsteak, butter, 
potatoes, and bread, it may be calculated as follows: 







Protein. 


Calories. 






Pounds. 
.18 
.01 
.019 
.088 


3.615 

I 280 






Potatoes 


I pound contains 


Wheat bread 


I pound contains . 




i^ ounces contain . . 




Round steak 


.14 
.02 

.12 


695 

680 












Wheat bread 




1,760 




Total 






.28 

.28 


3.455 
3.500 




Standard for man at mod- 
erate muscular worlt. . . . 



HUMAN FOODS. 



197 



PERCENTAGES OF NUTRIENTS, WATER, AND 
REFUSE IN SPECIMENS OF FOOD MATERIALS. 

(Atwater.) 



Food Materials. 



Animal Foods, as Purchased. 

Beef: Neck 

Shoulder 

Chuckrib 

Rib 

Sirloin 

Round steak 

Side without kidney fat 

Rump, corned 

Flank, corned 

Veal: Shoulder ..,, 

Mutton: Shoulder , 

Leg 

Loin 

Side, without kidney fat.. 

Pork: Shoulder roast, fresh 

Ham, salted, smoked 

Chicken 

Turkey 

Eggs, in shell " 

Fish, etc. : Flounder, whole 

Bluefish, dressed.. 

Codfish, dressed 

Shad, whole 

Mackerel, whole 

Halibut, dressed 

Salmon, whole 

Salt codfish 

Smoked herring 

Salt mackerel 

Canned salmon 

Lobsters 

Oysters 



Animal Foods, Edible Portion, 

Beef: Neck 

Shoulder 

Chuck rib 

Rib .. ., 

Sirloin 

Round 

Side, without kidney fat. . . 

Rump, corned 

Flank, " 

Veal: Shoulder 

Mutton: Shoulder.. 

Leg... 

Loin 



^7i 



20. 

12.6 

14.6 

21 .0 

19-5 
7.8 
19.2 

5-0 

12. 1 



Edible Portion. 



% 
49.6 
55.8 
49-5 



Nutrients. 



31 

35 
38.2 40 
48 3 

3' 

36. 

24. 

44. 

25- 

34. 
3^- 
42. 



324 
13-7 
66.8 
48.6 
29.9 
50.1 
44.8 
17.7 
35-3 
42.1 
50-9 
40.4 
4.9 
62.1 
82.3 



60.9 

44-3 
70.8 
,43-7 

;56-7 

49.0 

50.6 
i4i-5 
J44.2 

43-0 
I36.8 
J44.6 
|44. 
163- 
;27- 
I43.0 
;58.5 
^35 
140 

6x 
1 40 

40 

19 

28 

59 

31 

15-4 



% 
15.6 

7.0 
15.0 
12.2 
15.0 
18.0 
13-9 
16.7 
12.4 
16.6 
^5 
15 

T2.6 
15.0 

13-6 
14.8 

"5- 
16. 
12. 

5- 
9.8 
10.6 

9- 
10. o 

15- 

14-3 

16.0 

29.2 
14.7 

19-3 
5-5 
I.I 



38.2 18.3 
50-7|iS-o 



14.0 

3-7 
20. 1 
27.9 

6.4 

2-3 
21.8 

5- 
29. 

7 
t8. 
15- 
29. 

23- 



34-6 
1.2 
5-9 



17-5 
15-6 
23 -5 
35-6 
20.5 
10. 1 
27 I 
26.6 
33-0 
9.8 
22.4 
19.0 
35-0 



0.1 

0.6 



198 



AGRICULTURE. 



COMPOSITION OF FOOD MATERIALS. 

Nutritive ingredients, refuse, and fuel value. 



mm 



Non-nutrients. 
Water. Refuse. 



Fuel value. 
Calories. 



Protein Fats. Carbo- Blineral 
hydrates, matters 

Protein compounds, e. g'., lean of meat, white of egg, casein (curdJ of milk, and 
gluten of wheat, make muscle, blood, bone, etc. 
Fats, e. g., fat of meat, butter, and oil, ) serve as fuel to yield heat 
Carbohydrates, e.g., starch and sugar, I and muscular power. 




* Without bone. 



i 



HUMAN FOODS. 



199 



PERCENTAGES OF NUTRIENTS, ETC., IN FOOD 

MATEIlIAIjS.—Coniznued. 



Food Materials. 



Animal Foods, Edible Portion. 
Mutton: Sidg, without kidney fat 
Pork: Shoulder roast, fresh 

Ham, salted, smoked 

Fat. salted 

Sausage: Pork 

Bologna 

Chicken 

Turkey 

Esrgs 

Milk 

Butter 

Oleomargarine 

Cheese: Full-cream 

Skim-milk..,. 

Fish: Flounder „ 

Haddock 

Codfish 

Shad 

Mackerel 

Halibut 

Salmon 

Salt cod 

Herring, salt 

Mackerel, salt 

Oysters 

Vegetable Foods. 

Wheat flour 

Graham flour (wheat) 

Rye flour 

Buckwheat flour 

Oatmeal 

Cornmeal 

Rice 

Peas 

Beans 

Potatoes 

Sweet potatoes 

Turnips 

Carrots 

Onions.. . . 

String beans 

Green peas 

Green corn 

Tomatoes.. 

Cabbage -. 

Apples 

Sugar, granulated 

Molasses . 

White bread (wheat) 

Boston crackers 



Edible Portion. 



53-5 
50-3 
41-5 

12.1 

41.2 

62.4 
72.2 
66.2 
73-8 
87.0 
10.5 
II. o 
30.2 

413 
84.2 
81.7 
82.6 
70.6 
73-4 
75-4 
63.6 

34-6 
43-4 
87.1 



12.5 
131 
I3-I 
14.6 

I5-0 
12.4 
12.3 
12.6 
78.9 
71. 1 
89.4 
88.6 
87.6 
87.2 
78.1 
81.3 
q6.o 
91.9 
83.2 

2.0 
24.6 
32-3 

8.3 



Nutrients. 



46 


5 


49 


7 


58 


s 


87 


Q 


S8 


8 


37 


6 


27 


8 


?3 


8 


26 


2 


13 





89 





89 


5 


69 


8 


S8 


7 


IS 


B 


18 


3 


17 


4 


20 


4 


26 


6 


24 


6 


36 


4 


12 


9 



% 
16.9 

16.0 

16.7 

0.9 

T3.8 
18.8 
24.4 

23-9 
14.9 
3-6 
i.o 
0.6 
28.3 
38.4 
13-8 
16.8 
158 
18.6 
18.2 
18.3 
21.6 
21.4 
364 
17-3 
6.0 



II. o 

II. 7 
6.7 
69 

15 I 
9. a 
7-4 

26.7 

23.1 



1.4 
2.2 

4-4 
2.8 
0.8 



4-7 
0.4 



74-9 

71.7 

78.7 

76.1 

68.2 

70.6 

79-4 

56.4 

59 2 

17.9 

26.0' 

8.2 

8.9 

10. 1 

9-4 

16.0 

13.2 

2.5 

5'5 

15-9 

97.8 

73 I 

56.3 

68.7 



200 



AGRICULTURE. 



PECUNIARY ECONOMY OF FOOD. 

.Amounts of actually nutritive ingredients obtained in different 
foodmaterials for 25 cents. 
[Amount of nutrients in pounds. Fuel value in calories.] 
Protein. Fats. Carbohydrates. Fuel value. 





4 




Weights of nutrients and calories of 
energy in 25 cents worth. 


bs. 




a.. 


Lhs. 


1 Lb. 3 Lbs. 5 L 




sonnnaL euoocjaL iuoo(> 


Ual 




25.0 


1.00 


1 1 1 1 






^ 




Beef, sirloin 








15.0 


1.67 


^■M 




Beef, round 








6.0 


4.17 


%v>i.^\^==^ 




Beef, neck 








22.0 


l.U 


n 




Mutton, leg 








16.0 


1.56 


«r^=^ 




Ham, smoked 








13.0 


2.08 


3 — 1 




Salt pork, very fat 








8.0 


3.13 


5~^:S 












7.0 


3.57 


^^ 






mmm 






12.0 


2.08 


mm 




Mackerel, salt 








18.0 


1.43 


i 




Oysters, 35 cents guar 


■ 






li.7 


1.70 


m 




Eggs, 25 cents dozen 






Milk, 7 cents quart 


3.5 


7.14 


"^^'A 








Cheese, whole milk 


15 


1.67 


fc-^ 




Cheese, skim milk 


8,0 


.3.13 


1 




Butter 


30.0 


0.S3 


= 1 




Sugar 


5.0 


5.00 


■m. 










3.0 


8.33 


-m. 




Wheatjlour 












Wheat bread 


7.0 


3.57 


i 










2.5 


10.00 


r ' -^m^. 




Corn meal 












Beans 


50 


5.00 


•1 n 




Potatoes 


1.2 


20 00 


': 1 ..^////j-A 








Standard for daily i 


German.* 


'"'^ 










AmeriLa7i.\ 


1 















\At\Jcater, 



HUMAN FOODS. 



201 



AMOUNTS OF NUTRIENTS FURNISHED FOR 
TWENTY-FIVE CENTS IN FOOD MATERIALS 
AT ORDINARY PRICES. (Atwater.) 



Food Materials as Furnished. 



Meats, etc. 

Beef: Neck 

Chuck-ribs. 

Ribs 

Shoulder , 

Sirloin , 

Rump 

Round, first cut 

Round, second cut.. 
Flank, corned 

Corned and canned . 

Liver 

Mutton: Shoulder 

Leg 

Loin 

Pork: Rib roast 

Smoked ham, whole 

Salt fat pork 

Pork sausage 

Poultry, etc. : Chicken 

Turkey 

Fish, ttc. 
Mackerel, whole 

Bluefish, dressed. 

Cod, dressed 



a-S 



cts. 



' 15 



I 15 

( 20 
i-5 



I 6 



Twenty-five Cents will pay for 



C "3 



lbs. 

3-13 
4.17 
1.56 
2.08 
1.14 
1-39 
1.79 
2.50 
1. 14 
1-39 
I 39 
1.67 

1-39 
1.67 
2.50 

3 13 
1.67 
2.50 
1-39 
1.79 

313 

1.67 
1.00 
1-25 
1.00 
1.25 
2.08 
2.50 
1.56 
2.08 
1.67 
2.08 
1.67 
2.08 
1.14 
1.56 
1.09 
1.38 

1-39 
1.67 
2.50 
1.67 
2. 50 
2.50 
3-13 
4-17 



Nutrients. 



lbs. 

95 
27 
56 
75 
47 
57 
57 
79 
37 
45 
63 
!(> 
44 
52 
52 
65 
77 
II 
66 
85 
96 
4' 
58 
31 
39 
43 
53 
88 
06 
86 
08 
17 
03 
98 
22 
32 
45 
37 
47 



lbs. 

•44 
•58 
•31 
.42 
•32 
•39 
•25 
•34 
.19 
•23 
•43 
■52 
■17 
.21 

•15 
.18 

• 49 
•73 

• 24 
•3 

• 17 
.22 
•3 
.16 
.20 
.29 
■37 






lbs 



202 



AGRICULTURE. 



AMOUNTS OF NUTRIENTS FURNISHED FOR 
TWENTY-FIVE CENTS IN FOOD MATERIALS 
AT ORDINARY PRICES. -C^«//««^^. 



Food Materials as Furnished. 



Fish, etc. 
Halibut steaks 

Canned salmon 

Oysters, 50 cts. per quart 

35 " 

Lobster, whole 

" canned 

Eggs and Dairy Products 
Eggs, 35Ct5. perdoz 

" 25 " " 

" 15 " 

Milk, 8 cts. per quart 

^^ 6 1^ ^^ 

Butter 

Cheese, full cream 

Vegetable Foods. 
Potatoes, $1.00 per bushel . . . 
.80 " 
" .50 " 
Sweet potatoes , 

Beets 

Turnips 

Sugar 

Dried beans , 

Maize " corn" meal , 

Oatmeal 

Wheat flour 

Wheat bread 

Crackers 






1-7 
I 25 

0.85 

i 5 
\ 3 



Twenty-five Cents will pay for 



<A <A 



lbs. 



1-43 
2.08 



1-37 
i.i-j 
6.25 

8.33 
12.50 

•7 
1 .01 
1.38 



14.70 

20.00 

29.40 

5- 

8.33 

12.50 

25.00 

12.50 

25.00 

5.00 

4.17 

5-00 

6.25 

8.33 

25.00 

5.00 

6.25 

7.14 

8.33 

3-57 

5.00 

2.08 



Nutrients. 



lbs. 



.23 
•32 
•53 
.81 

1.08 

1.6 

M 
.90 
.96 

1-45 



•3 

.42 

.62 

.14 

.24 

.14 

.29 

•13 
.27 
4.90 
3-64 
4-37 
5-46 
7.08 
21.25 
4.6 

5-47 
6.25 
7.29 
2.42 
3-38 
1. 91 
2.88 



lbs. 
.19 
.24 

• 25 
.06 
.09 

.14 

•23 

.12 

•17 

.20 

• 23 
.30 
.40 



o o c 



lbs. 







... 


04 
05 



4 8y 
2.47 
2.96 
3-70 
5- 

'7-65 
3-42 
4 
5 

6.24 
2.0 
2.8: 
1.47 
2.21 



0.5 



cals. 
605 
,40 
1310 
230 
345 
345 
415 
470 

645 
,910 
1490 
2020 
2675 
4065 
2550 
3635 
3850 
4210 

580 

790 

1225 

240 

430 

240 

485 

225 

490 

9095 

6760 

8065 

III 10 

13720 

41115 

9255 

10285 

"755 

13695 

4570 

6445 

3970 

593c 



HUMAN FOODS. 



203 



DIETARY STANDARDS. (Jaffa.) 





■53 ^ 








■z.S 

3»i 




a^ 


<A 


r=1?.^ 


D U I- 






^ 


s: 




^ 


I. Children, 1-2 years (average) 


.06 


.08 


.16 


765 


i:5^6 


2 Children 2 6 years (averajje) 


•13 

.t6 


.oy 
.10 


•44 


1420 


5^o 

5^2 


3. Children, 6-15 years (average) 


•71 


2040 


4. Acquit in full health— Playf.iir 


.26 


.11 


1. 17 


3140 


5^5 




-.11 


.16 




3630 




6. Man at moderate work— Voit 


.12 


1. 10 


3055 


5 3 


7. Man at hard work — Voit 


•32 


.22 


■99 


3370 


4-7 


8. Man with little physical exercise— 












Atwater 


.20 


.20 


.66 


»45o 


55 


9. Man with light muscular work— At- 












water 


.22 


.22 


•77 


2800 


5-7 


10. Man wi(h moderate work — Atwater.. 


.28 


.28 


•99 


3520 


S.8 


II. Man with active work— Atwater 


•33 


•33 


1. 10 


4060 


S.6 


12. Man with hard work— Atwater 


•39 


•55 


1-43 


5700 


6.q 


13. Subsistence diet— Playfair 


■13 


•03 


•75 


1760 


6.3 


14. Average of 7 dietaries of professional 












men, Europe 


.2=? 


.22 


•63 


2670 


4^7 


15. Average of 5 dietaries of professional 












men, United States 


.27 


•34 


1.08 


3925 


6.6 



SUMMARY OF A3IERICAN DIETARY STUDIES. 

(Bryant.) 



Families Studied. 



Average of 2 laborers' families in com- 
fortable circumstances 

Average of 15 college clubs in Me., Conn., 
Tenn., and Mo 

Average of 10 farmers' families in Vt., 
Conn , and N, Y 

Average of 14 mechanics' families in 
Conn., N. J., Tenn., and Ind 

Average of 12 negro families in Ala.$ . . 

Average of 5 French-Canadian families 
in Chicago, 111. t 

Average of 14 professional men's families 
in Conn., Pa., Ind., and 111 .. 

Average of 4 families of Russian Jews in 
Chicago, 111.* 

Av. of 4 Italian families in Chicago. 111.$. 

Average of n poor families in N. Y. City 

Av. of 12 laborers' families in N. Y. City 

Average of 8 Bohemian families in Chi- 
cago, III. J 

Average of 2 laborers' families in Pitts- 
burg, Pa., very poor 



Av.Food Consump.p.Man p. Day 



28t 



go 

0. 



103 
67 



103 
93 






157 

148 

130 

150 
134 

158 

125 



III 

95 
116 



95 



S 2 B 



534 

459 

467 

402 
453 

345 
423 

406 
391 
407 

344 
360 
308 






4045 
3690 

3515 
3465 

3375 

3365 

3325 

3095 
3060 
2915 
2905 

2885 

2485 



* Average of o studies. t Average of 5 studies. 

X Food purchased; inthe other averages the food actually eaten is given. 



204 AGRICULTURE. 

DIAGRAMS OP CUTS OF MEAT. 




Diagram I. A Good Steer's Carcass, as Cut Up and Priced in the 
Eastern Market. 



A good 1200-pound steer will dress about 800 pounds of 
beef cut up as above — 715 pounds salable cuts, with 85 
pounds of fat, bone, and waste. 

The diagram illustrates what the breeder and feeder 
should aim to produce in the conformation of the beef- and 
mutton-producing animal, so that the highest possible per- 
centage of the carcass will be cuts of the high-priced class, 
thereby giving the best possible return for food consumed. 
(McKerrow.) 

The methods of dividing up the carcasses of slaughtered 
animals into parts, and the terms used for the "cuts," as 
these parts are commonly called, vary considerably in dif- 
ferent localities. The accompanying diagrams will make 
clear the terms used in the table Composition of Human 
Foods (pp. 197-199). 



HUMAN^ FOODS. 



205 




IV. Diagram of Cuts of Pork.* 



* U, S. Dept. of Agriculture. 



200 



AGRICULTURE. 



LIVE WEIGHT AND DRESSED WEIGHT OF STEERS 
OP DIFFERENT BREEDS AND AGES. (Henry.) 



{S7/iii/i/leId S//C'7i', 



-95.) 













Live 




Breed an 


d Age. 


No. of 
Ani- 
mals. 


Aver. 
Age. 


Aver. 
Daily 
Gains. 


Weight 

at 
Shiugh- 


Dressed 

Weight. 






- 








tering. 










Days 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Per Ct. 


Shorthorn, 


I year olds.. 


5 


642 


2.T1 


1355 


66.1 




2 " ' 






i8 


963 


1.92 


,842 


67.5 




3 " 






i6 


1321 


1.72 


2251 


69.4 


Hereford, 


I " ' 






i6 


663 


1.97 


1308 


65.1 




2 " ' 






13 


1020 


1.78 


1817 


67.2 




3 '' 






8 


1349 


1.64 


2218 


69.2 


Devon, 


I 






13 


634 


1-75 


1112 


66.0 




2 " ' 






19 


1045 


1-51 


1583 


67.7 




J 






i6 


1311 


1-37 


1796 


67 3 


Aberdeen Angus 








26 


668 


2.04 


1366 


65.4 




2 " ' 






21 


looS 


I 74 


1765 


66.7 




3 '; 






2 


1346 


1-59 


2138, 


57.4 


Sussex, 








17 


677 


2.15 


1452 


65.4 




2 •' 






18 


989 


1.86 


1837 


68.2 




3 " 






12 


1285 


1. 61 


20O4 


68.0 


Red Poll, 


2 " ' 






12 


T002 


1.64 


1631 


65.7 




3 " 






6 


1362 


1.49 


2022 


65.8 


Galloway, 


2 " 






7 


1027 


1.64 


1688 


64.5 




3 " " •■ 


4 


1344 


1-47 


1969 


64.8 



PROPORTION OF BEEF TO THP] LIVE WEIGHT 
OF CATTLE. (McConnell.) 





Live Weight, 

Pounds 
Avoirdupois. 


Per Cent of Beef. 




Class L 


Class n. 


Class HI 


Heifers 


Under 2520 
" 2520 
1680-2100 
1400-1680 
1400-1680 
1260 -1400 
1260-14&0 
1 120- 1 260 
1.20-1260 
980-T120 

Under 980 


70.72 
69.71 
66.68 
66 68 
62.65 
62 65 
57 61 
57-6i 
53-56 
53-56 


66.69 
66.69 
63.6s 
63.6s 
60.62 
60.62 
54-59 
54-59 
50.53 
50-53 




Sieers 

Steers 

Heifers 


63.66' 
6\ 66 


Steers 

Heifers 

Steers. 


57.62 
57.62 
51-56 
51-56 
48 50 
48.50 
45-47 


Heifers 


Steers 

Heifers . . 


Heifers 









HUMAN FOODS. 



20^ 



COMPARATIVE RESULTS OBTAINED WITH 

FATTENING ANIMALS. (Lawes and Gilbert.) 

{a) Per lOO lbs. live, zveight per week. 





Received by Animal. 


Results Produced. 




Total 

Dry 

Food. 


Dig-estible 
Organic 
Matter. 


Food Con- 
sumed for 
Heat and 
Work. 


Dry 

Manure 

Produced. 


Increase 
in Live 

Weight. 


Oxen 

Sheep 

Pigs 


lbs. 

'^•^ 
10. o 

27.0 


lbs, 

8.9 

12.3 

22.0 


lbs. 
6.86 
9.06 
12.58 


lbs. 
4-56 
5.10 
4-51 


lbs. 

1.76 
6.43 







{J)) In relation to food consumed. 





Increase in Live 

Weight. 


On 100 lbs of Dry Food. 




Per 100 

lbs. Dry 

Food. 


Per 100 lbs. 
Digested 
Organic 
Matter. 


Consumed 

for Heat 

and Work. 


Dry 

Manure 
Produced. 


Dry 
Increase 
Yielded. 


Oxen 

Sheep 

Pigs 


lbs. 

9.0 

II .0 

23.8 


lbs. 
12.7 

14-3 
29.2 


lbs, 

54-9 
56.6 
46.6 


lbs. 
36.5 
31.9 
16.7 


lbs. 
6.2 
8.0 
17.6 



LIVE WEIGHT AND GAINS MADE BY SWINE. 



(Henry and Sanborn.) 





No. of 


Aver. 






Daily 


Feed 


Live 






Feed 


per Lb. 


Weight. 


mals. 


Weight. 


Eaten. 


Made. 


of 
Gain. 


Lbs. 




Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Under 50 


59 


37-7 


2.31 


.701 


3-3° 


50-100 


91 


75-5 


3 


33 


.900 


3-70 


1Q0-150 


119 


126. 1 


4 


2Q 


1.029 


4.17 


150-200 


138 


176.2 


6 


4S 


1. 123 


5-75 


200-250 


65 


214. 1 


6 


89 


1.287 


5-35 


250-300 


41 


266.4 


7 


64 


1-457 


5.24 


300-350 


12 


333 -o 


6.02 


I • 352 


4-45 




525 













Per 100 Lbs. Live 
Weight. 




208 



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C o _• re 3 
S PU C/3 (/} 1/5 



PART II. DAIRYING. 



I. DAIRY COWS. 

ON THE ORIGIN AND CHARACTERISTICS OF THE 
DIFFERENT BREEDS OF DAIRY CATTLE. 

I. Jersey Cattle. 

The origin of the Jersey cattle, like many of our other 
improved breeds of live-stock, is not known with cer- 
tainty. The theory is that they descend from cattle 
brought from the Scandinavian countries to Normandy, 
P>ance, during the tenth century or before, whence they 
were introduced into the Island of Jersey, off the French 
coast. The breed has been kept pure on this little island 
for a longer period than any other English breeds, as a 
result of the enactment in 17S9 of a law forbidding im- 
portations of foreign cattle into the island. According to 
Flint, Jerseys were first imported into this country about 
1838, but heavy importations did not begin until after 1850. 

The following is a description of typical Jersey cows: 
Head fine and tapering; cheek small; throat clean; the 
muzzle fine and encircled with a slight stripe; the nostril 
high and open; the horns smooth, crumpled, not very 
thick at the base, tapering, and tipped with black; ears 
small and thin, deep orange color inside; eyes full and 
placid; neck straight and fine; chest broad and deep; bar- 
rel hooped, broad and deep, well ribbed up; back straight 
from the withers to the hip, and from the top of the hip 
to the setting on of the tail; tail fine, at right angles with 
the back, and hanging down to the hocks; skin thin, light 
color, and mellow, covered with fine soft hair; forelegs 
short, straight and fine below the knee, arm swelling and 
full above; hind quarters long and well filled; hind legs 



212 DAIRYING. 

short and straight below the hocks, with bones rather fine, 
squarely placed, and not too close together; hoofs small; 
udder full in size, in line with the belly, extending well up 
behind; teats of medium size, squarely placed and wide 
apart, milk veins very prominent; color is generally 
cream, dun, or yellow, with more or less white. 

The Jerseys are generally considered a butter-producing 
breed, and justly so. The milk produced is as a rule richer 
in fat and solids than that of any other breed, but the 
quantity yielded, on the other hand, is apt to be lower. 
Milk from good Jersey cows often contains over six per 
cent of fat, the average being about five per cent. Produc- 
tion of rich milk has been the prin)ary aim of Jersey 
breeders; in 1881 the secretary of the American Jersey 
Cattle Club wrote: " The sole office of the Jersey cow is 
to produce the largest possible amount of rich, highly 
colored cream from a given amount of food. Everything 
else in connection with the breeding of the race is, or 
should be, incidental," 

. The highest yields of butter-fat or butter, in case of 
Jersey cows as well as other dairy breeds, are not, how- 
ever, apt to come from cows producing exceptionally rich 
milk, but rather from such producing an exceptionally 
large quantity of good milk; generally speaking, an ex- 
traordinarily high fat-content is accompanied by a small 
milk yield. 

Typical Jerseys generally have a high-strung, nervous 
temperament, and in order to do their best must receive 
good care; they cannot be abused as to feed or treatment 
without injury; for this reason they will only prove a suc- 
cess in the hands of intelligent feeders who care for and 
take an interest in their stock. The dairy type predomi- 
nates, viz.: a wedge-shaped, deep-chested body, with 
good digestive organs, large full udders, well-developed 
milk-veins, and a soft, mellow skin. The cows are gentle 
and docile, while the bulls have the reputation of being 
hard to handle, and often ugly and dangerous after a couple 
of years' service. 

The maximum yields of milk and butter produced by 
Jersey cows are given on page 189, the table giving the 



DAIRY COWS. 21'6 

official records. In the breed-tests conducted by the ex- 
periment stations in Maine, New Jersey, and New York 
(Geneva), the Jerseys have ranked among the first, but 
have seldom been the foremost. As the average of all tests 
of dairy breeds up to date, we notice that the Jerseys rank 
after the Shorthorns and the Guernseys in total yield of 
fat during a full period of lactation, and after Guernseys in 
the cost of producing one pound of fat; they rank first as to 
richness of milk produced. In the English milking trials 
conducted by the British Dairy Farmers' Association, the 
Shorthorn cows have generally led the Jerseys in the 
total quantities of fat produced per day, and other breeds 
have also, on the average, given better results than these. 
The Jerseys came out victorious in the breed-tests con- 
ducted at the World's Columbian Exposition in 1893; they 
produced more milk, butter-fat, butter, and cheese, and 
gave a higher net gain than either of the two other breeds 
competing (Guernsey and Shorthorn); the Guernseys, on 
the other hand, led as regards the cost of the food con- 
sumed. Also in the Dairy Cow Demonstration at the La. Pur- 
chase Exposition in St. Louis, in 1904, the Jersey cows produced 
more butter-fat, on the average, than either of the other com- 
peting breeds, and at a lower feed cost per pound (see p. 239) 
The champion Jersey cow in this demonstiation, Loretta D., 
produced in 120 days 5802.7 lbs. milk; average per cent of fat 
4.82; 280.16 lbs. butter-fat, equivalent to 330 lbs. of butter 
and an average daily production of 2 334 lbs. butter- fat. 

The American Jersey Cattle Club was organized in July, 1868 
the Herd Register of the club, the first volume of which was 
published in 1871, has been issued in sixty-one volumes up to 
date, including in all 70,500 bulls and 189,000 cows. Butter 
Tests oj Registered Jersey Cozus gives all tests of registered Jerseys 
where the yield of butter for seven consecutive days was 14 lbs. 
or more; the latest volume published is Vol. II., New Series. 

The present secretary of the American Jersey Cattle Club is 
J. J. Hemingway, No. 8 W. Seventeenth St., New York City. 



214: DAIRYING. 



II. Guernsey Cattle. 

By Prof. W. H. Caldwell, Peterboro, N. H., Sec'y Am. Guernsey Cattle 
Club. 

The Guernsey breed takes its name from the Island of 
Guernsey, one of the Channel, or sometimes termed Alder- 
ney, Islands. The origin of the Channel Island cattle, 
while somewhat involved in controversy, is generally be- 
lieved to have come from stock originally from the French 
provinces of Normandy and Brittany, and that the founda- 
tion for the Guernseys was laid by crossing the Normandy 
bull on the Brittany cow. It is very interesting to turn to 
the Island of Guernsey, cut off as it is from the main land 
by the little strip of sea, and protected on all sides by 
a rough, rocky coast, and note the characteristics which 
we find there that have played so important a part in 
moulding the character of the Guernsey of to-day. There 
the shrewd, careful, sturdy people have labored many years 
to produce a cow that should excel in butter production. 
Their labors have been rewarded in the Guernsey, which is 
noted the world over for producing butter of the highest 
natural color and with the least outlay for cost of feed. 
Fate might have been different with these people but for 
their insular situation, pride of self-government, habits and 
customs, which led them to zealously fight invasions, and 
even as early as 1789 to take measures against the fraud- 
ulent importation of stock. In 1S26 came more stringent 
laws, that prohibited importation to the island except for 
slaughter. It thus isolated the islanders and their cows 
from the cattle kingdom. 

The striking appearance of the Guernsey is at once seen 
in its rich yellow skin, which has always been noted as the 
characteristic of a good butter-cow. In appearance they are 
rangy, deep, business-looking animals, with a particularly 
quiet, gentle, tractable temperament, free from nervous- 
ness. The prevailing color is a delicate shade of fawn with 
white markings, and cream-colored nose; and their most 
remarkable characteristic of richness is apparent in the 



DAIRY COWS. 215 

golden color around the eye, on the udder and teats at 
base of horn, and at end of the bone of tail. 

Until recently Guernseys in America were kept chiefly 
for family use. They were introduced into private dairies 
around Philadelphia as early as 1840, and since that time no 
other breeds have been permitted to replace them. The 
gentlemen who first introduced Guernseys had no motive 
to advertise them. They esteemed their golden-colored 
products so highly that they were kept for the supplying 
of families with the best milk and butter that could be pro- 
duced. About 1865 a few Guernseys were introduced by 
the importers, which laid the foundation of some of our 
herds of to-day. A few years later the Massachusetts So- 
ciety for the Promotion of Agriculture, realizing the^ great 
promise of the breed, iniported some and distributed them 
at a public sale to dairymen in the State. A few years 
later a number of Connecticut farmers joined together and 
sent a man to the island to bring over a lot. It soon became 
obvious to these gentlemen that some organization was 
necessary to preserve the purity of these cattle and to 
encourage their recognition. Accordingly on February 7. 
1877, the American Guernsey Cattle Club was organized in 
New York City. At that time there were about one hun- 
dred and fifty pure-bred Guernseys in the country, whose 
pedigrees could be traced without question to importation 
^rom the island. At present there are about 14,000 animals 
in the Register. In the last few years — in fact since the 
World's Fair Dairy tests in 1893, and the work at the New 
York and New Jersey Experiment Stations — great interest 
has been taken in the Guernseys. More entries and trans- 
fers have been recorded, and more members have joined 
the Club than at any similar period in its history. The 
public are just realizing the straightforward work that 
has been quietly done for the last quarter of a century, and 
find in a study of it that there are many valuable records to 
the credit of the breed. These are all the more valuable as 
the Guernsey has not been forced for high records, but 
have honestly won their way. 

The best records reported of Guernsevs are those of Lily 



216 DAIRYIKG. 

of Alexandre, No. 1059, and Imp. Bretonne, No. 3660. Lily 
of Alexandre gave 12,855 j pounds of milk in one year ; and 
two months before calving tested 7.2 per cent of butter-fat. 
Bretonne gave in the year ending October 20, 1894, ii,2ig 
pounds 0/ milk. Her' milk was tested carefully once a 
month by taking a composite sample of eight consecutive 
milkings. The lowest test was 5.2 per cent and highest 
6.1 per cent butter- fat. Her milk yielded 6o2Yy^ pounds 
of butter-fat, or equivalent to 753i^o pounds of butter con- 
taining 80 oer cent butter-fat. She is a large, well-built 
• ow, and weighed at the close of her year's work 1150 
pounds. In addition the cow Fantine 2d, No. 3730, owned 
by Mr. Chas. Solveson of Nashotah, Wis., gave in one year, 
besides dropping a fine calf and being dry four weeks, 9748 
pounds of milk, the lowest test being 5 and the highest 
5.6 per cent butter-fat, which would yield a year's record 
of 516.6 pounds butter fat or 602 pounds of butter. Mr. 
Ezra Michener of Carversville, Pa., owns the cow King's 
Myra, No. 5339, who has just completed the year's test 
under the direction of the Guernsey Breeders' Association 
ajid received their first prize. She is four years old, and 
gave in the year 86ir pounds of milk, which yielded 539 
pounds of butter. Nearly a hundred cows have been re- 
ported that have made a record of 14 pounds or over of 
butter a week, and several that have made exceedingly fine 
single-day tests, as one cow, Pretty Dairymaid 2d of 
Guernsey, No. 6366, who in an official test gave in three 
consecutive days 61 pounds 2 ounces, 62 pounds 12 ounces, 
and 52 pounds and 9 ounces of milk, a total of 176 pounds 
7 ounces. 

Their ability to produce butter-fat and butter at a low 
cost demands the careful attention of the dairymen. At 
the New York Experiment Station several of the dairy 
breeds are being carefully tested. The annual report of the 
director, which was recently issued, gives the result of the 
first two periods of lactation. In both instances the Guern- 
seys produced butter-fat at the least cost, as the following 
shows : 



« 



DAIRY COWS. 



217 



Their ability to produce butter-fat and butter at a low cost de- 
mands the careful attention of the dairyman. At the N. Y.( Geneva) 
and N. J. Exp. Stations several of the dairy breeds have been 
carefully tested. In both instances the Guernseys produced but- 
te;--fat at the least cost, and the same result was obtained in the 
World's Fair test, 1891, as the following shows: 

COST 'OF BUTTER-FAT PER POUND, CENTS. 





N. Y. (Geneva.) 


New Jersey.* 






Breed. 


Lactation Period. 


World's 
Fair.* 




First. 


Second. 






18.4 
20 
24-3 

26^3 
23.0 
26.3 


15.6 
18.5 
24.8 

26'. i 
ig.o 
22.8 


15-3 

11 

20.8 
22.4 






13 

15 


3 

8 


Ayrshire..... 

Shorthorn 

Holstein 


Am. Holderness 


• 



* Cost of butter per pound. 

This shows the Guernseys to be the most economical 
producers of butter ; and such golden-yellow butter, too ! 

The American dairyman, in his endeavor to improve his 
own herd and collectively to improve the herds of his sec- 
tion, naturally takes a great deal of interest in the grade 
dairy cow. In the progressive dairy sections the influence 
which pure bred bulls exert is readily acknowledged. 
They intensify the good qualities of the breed to which 
they belong, and make such a section a desirable place for 
the seeking of good family and profitable dairy cows. The 
value of the Guernsey bull in effecting this improvement 
has been well understood for many years, and especially is 
it realized to-day in the desire to secure in the dairy cattle 
of America greater physical strength and more profitable 
butter production without reducing size or sacrificing rich- 
ness of milk production. Mr. Lewis F. Allen, in his writings 
several years ago, spoke especially of his experience with 
the Guernsey for grading. He said his experience was 
good, large-sized animals, free and persistent milkers, and 



218 DAIRYING. 

the making of the first quality butter for private family or 
hotel use. He believed that on a whole the Guernseys 
were more satisfactory for the dairy than any which in his 
forty years' experience he had ever had. His cows had 
good square udders, well set front and behind, teats of 
good size and easy to grasp. 

The Herd Register is published by the American Guern- ' 
sey Cattle Club, whose headquarters are at Peterboro, N. 
H. The breeders of Guernseys have always been harmoni- 
ous in letting their favorites win their way by their own 
straightforward efforts in the dairy. By addressing the 
Secretary of the Club at Peterboro, N. H., further informa- 
tion will cheerfully be furnished. 

in. Holstein-Friesian Cattle. 

By Malcolm H. Gardner, Delavan, Wis., Supt. Advanced Registry 
Holstein-Friesian Association of America. 

The cattle known in America as Holstcin-Friesians belong to 
the shorthorn, low-land race, native to the fertile lands of Europe 
bordering on the North Sea; of which race, from the dairy stand- 
point, the Holstein-Friesian family is the most highly developed. 
These cattle might have been better named Friesian, since 
Friesland, and the neighboring provinces of Holland, is the 
central home from which this breed of cattle has been so widely 
disseminated over the ( Id World, and from which some 10,000 
head of foundation stock has been brought to America. The 
Friesian people are among the most conservative of the Ger- 
manic race; still holding to and speaking among themselves the 
old Friesian language, although also able to speak Dutch, the 
official language of Holland. They have been equally conserva- 
tive in holding to their ancient industry of cattle-rearing, an 
occupation for which their low-lying lands are especially fitted; 
and as Tacitus speaks of them nearly 1900 years ago as cattle 
breeders, paying a tribute in cattle and hides to the Roman 
Empi'e, so we find them to-day making dairy husbandry their 
main industry. Holding mainly to one occupation down through 
the centuries, and passing the business from father to son, it 
would be strange indeed if their breed of cattle did not reach a 
very high degree of development; so it is in no way surprising 
that we should find these Friesian dairymen possessed of a breed 



DAIRY COWS. 219 

of cattle which, as an all-around dairy breed, is superior to any 
•other breed known. 

AVhile the Holstein-Friesians are essentially a dairy breed 
and are so regarded in America, yet as an all-around dairy breed 
the matter of beef and veal must not be lost sight of, and in 
Holland these*are very important points. There few cattle are 
allowed to pass their seventh year; but before they pass out of 
their prime they are fattened and sold as beef. Prof. I. P. 
Roberts in speaking of Holstein-Friesian beef said: "I ate it 
for three weeks, and the English beef for two; and while not so 
fat as the short-horn, it was to my taste superior." The breed 
reaches full growth and maturity at about five years of age; reach- 
ing full height at between two and one-half and three years of 
age, and each year for the two following years adding about one 
and three-fourth inches in length, three-fourths of an inch in 
width of hips, and two inches in girth of chest. Mr. S. Hoxie, 
former Supt. of H.-F. Advanced Registry, states that the average 
measurem.ents of cows upwards cf five years of age received to 
entry in the fourth volume of the Advanced Register were as 
follows: "Height at shoulders, 51.8 inches; height at hips, 53 
inches; length of body, 64.9 inches; length of rump, 21.4 inches; 
width of hips, 2 1. 9 inches; width at thurl, 19.6 inches; girth at 
smallest circumference of chest, 75.6 inches." The average 
weight of these cows was 1262 lbs., and the average measure- 
ments are those of what rright be deemed a typical animal of 
what is technically knovvti as the milk-and-flesh form of the 
breed, the form most popular in Americc. 

The first association of breeders of the?-e cattle in this country 
w?s formed in 1871, the first herd-book being published the 
following year. The present Holstein-Friesian Association was 
lorn.ed in 1S85 by the union of two earlier associations, and is 
now the largest association of breeders of pure-bred dairy cattle 
in Am.erica. How many H.-F. cattle there are now living is 
unknown; but since the juncture of the two old associations in 
1885, over 85,000 females and 42,000 males have been recorded. 
The H.-F. Advanced Register, based for entry upon individual 
merit, was established in 1885; 17 volumes having been pub- 
lished, containing entries of over 5700 cows and 460 bulls. The 
age of any female is computed as that at the time of last calving 



220 DAIRYIN-G. 

or aborting, and the requirements for entry vary with the age^ 
being not less than 7.2 lbs. butter-fat in seven consecutive days 
for a heifer calving at just two years of age or younger, and in- 
creasing proportionately to not less than 12 lbs. butter-fat for a 
cow calving at five years old or older; there being no increased 
requirements for increased age after a cow reaches the age of 
five years. Only bulls having four or more daughters which 
have been entered in the Advanced Register on official records 
of butter-fat are accepted for entry. 

The rules for the entry of cows in the H.-F. Advanced Register 
are very stringent, being designed to place every H.-F. record 
beyond even a shadow of doubt. Every milking during the 
period of test is watched, weighed, sampled, and tested by a 
representative of a State Agricultural College; and thus, because 
of resulting expense, the bulk of its records are for short periods, 
mainly for one week. It will be readily admitted that 18 lbs. 
of butter-fat will make 2 1 lbs. of the best of butter, or an average 
of three pounds butter per day when 18 lbs. of fat is produced 
in seven consecutive days, and that very few cows other than 
Holstein-Friesian have ever under strict rules produced such an 
amount. The records of the H.-F. Advanced Register show that 
224 H.-F, cows have produced officially in excess of 18 lbs. 
butter-fat; of which 82 cows have produced between 18 and 
19 lbs.; 64 cows, between 19 and 20 lbs.; 46 cows, between 20 
and 21 lbs.; 15 cows, between 21 and 22 lbs.; 8 cows, between 
22 and 23 lbs.; 6 cows, between 23 and 24 lbs.; i cow, between 
24 and 25 lbs.; i cow, between 25 and 26 lbs.; and i cow, 
over 27 lbs. It must be remembered that while many of these 
records were made by cows much under five years of age, there 
were a large number of records made by two and three-year-old 
heifers, which were, considering age, proportionately as large, 
yet fell short of the i8-lb. Hmit required for this fist. 

As to the per cent of fat in average H.-F. milk, 1545 cows and 
heifers of all ages entered in the 17th volume of the H.-F. 
Advanced Register, of which more than one-half were heifers, 
produced in seven consecutive days an average of 376.7 lbs. 
milk, containing 12.75 ^t)S. butter-fat, showing an average of 
3.39 per cent fat. There were 71 cows and heifers producing 
over 18 lbs. butter-fat; and these cows averaged 540.9 lbs, milk, 



DAIRY COWS. 221 

containing 19.758 lbs. butter-fat, showing an average of 3.65 
per cent fat. P^ighty-three H.-F. cows and heifers have made 
30-day official records exceeding 72 lbs. butter-fat, of which 
24 made from 72 to 76 lbs.; 27, from 76 to 80 lbs.; 18, from 
80 to 85 lbs.; 6, from 85 to 90 lbs.; 6, from 90 to 100 lbs.; i, 
from 100 to no lbs.; and i made over no lbs. of butter-fat. 

A few H.-F. cows have been officially tested for longer periods; 
and one cow produced in 100 days over 284 lbs. fat, while a 
heifer under three years of age produced over 227 lbs. in the 
same length of time. At the World's Fair at St. Louis, where 
three Missouri H.-F. breeders pitted their individual herd against 
the pick of the Jersey world, one H.-F. cow produced over 282 
lbs. fat in 120 days, surpassing the foremost Jersey by over two 
pounds; and since then a H.-F. cow has produced officially 
over 316 lbs. fat in the same time. One H.-F. cow has produced 
over 453 lbs. fat in 182 1 days, while another produced over 721 
lbs. fat in one year. This last was owned by the Michigan Agl. 
College. Prof. Oscar Erf, Kansas Agl. College, writes that one of 
their H.-F. cows has produced nearly 16,000 lbs. of milk in one 
year, testing from 3.2 to 3.7 per cent fat, and that at the end of the 
year she was still giving from 25 to 30 lbs. milk per day; while 
Prof. A. L. Haecker, Nebraska Agl. College, states that a heifer 
calving at just past three years has given in 39 weeks 15,063.9 
lbs. milk, containing 492.05 lbs. butter fat, and that she was still 
giving 45 lbs. milk per day, with 13 weeks before her in which 
to complete the year's record. A heifer, calving at just past 
three years of age, in semi-official test under the rules of the 
Wisconsin Exp. Station, produced in one year, 13,213.6 lbs. 
milk containing 584.080 lbs. butter-fat. Many H.-F. cows have 
made very large private records; but it is not the practice of the 
H.-F. Association to report private records. 

It has been asserted by some persons illy posted as to the facts, 
that while H.-F. cows did yield large quantities of milk, the milk 
was below standard in quality. Ten gallons of milk per day, by 
weight 84 lbs., might be considered more than any cow could 
ever produce; yet under the strictest official test 40 H.-F. cows 
have yielded in excess of 588 lbs. in a period of seven consecutive 
days. This herd of 40 cows, of which some were not of full age, 
produced in a period of seven consecutive days 25,032.2 lbs. 
milk, containing 821.497 lbs. butter-fat; thus showing an average 



222 DAIRYING. 

of 3.28 per cent fat. The average for each cow was 625.8 lbs. 
milk, containing 20.537 lbs. butter-fat, equivalent to 89.4 lbs. milk 
(over loj gallons) per day, and nearly 24 lbs. of commercial 
butter per week. After such proofs of large production of both 
butter-fat and of milk, and showing that even in the largest 
yields of almost incredible amounts of milk the content of butter- 
fat was 10 per cent in excess of the usual legal requirements, 
further comment would seem unnecessary. 

Owners and breeders of Holstein-Friesian cattle base their 
claims for the superiority of this breed over all other dairy breeds 
mainly on the following points: First, that the Holstein-Friesian 
is a large, strong, vigorous cow, full of energy and abounding 
in vitality; second, that her physical organization and digestive 
capacity are such that she is able to turn to the best advantage the 
roughage of the farm, converting the same into merchantable 
products; third, that she yields large quantities of most excellent 
milk, fit for any and all uses, and especially well fitted for shipping 
purposes; fourth, that heredity is so firmly established through 
her long lineage that she is able to perpetuate herself through the 
production of strong, healthy calves; and fifth, that, when for 
any reason her usefulness in the dairy is at an end, she fattens 
readily and makes excellent beef. 

IV. Ayrshires. 

By C. M. WiNSLOW, Brandon, Vt., Secretary Association of Ayrshire 
Breeders. 

The original home of the Ayrshire cow is in Scotland, in the 
county of Ayr. This county has always been noted for its 
dairy industry and the thrift of its inhabitants. The soil is strong, 
giving good pasturing and abundant crops, the climate is rough, 
and people and cattle hardy. 

The Ayrshires began to attract the attention of dairymen 
in other parts of the world some sixty years ago, and there was 
an importation made into Canada and the New England States, 
where they are bred in considerable numbers and highly prized. 
They have been sent South, and are said to endure the heat better 
than any other breed. They also are said to stand the cold of 
Canada better than any other dairy breed. 

The Ayrshire cow is of medium size, weighing about one 
thousand pounds, of blocky build, low on legs, and usually 



DAIRY COWS. 223 

spotted in color, being red and white as a rule, though sometimes 
nearly red or nearly white. They are hardy and healthy, endur- 
ing changes of heat and cold with little discomfort, and quickly 
adapt themselves to surrounding conditions. They perhaps 
show to the best advantage where the food-supply is limited 
and they are compelled to hunt for a full supply. 

It is claimed for the cows of this breed that they will give the 
largest return of dairy product for food consumed of any of the dairy 
breeds. There has never been much said or done by the owners 
of Ayrshires to bring their merits to the attention of the public. 
They are a popular cow for the milkman, because they are econom- 
ical producers and give milk of good quality that satisfies the trade. 

High-grade Ayrshire cows always command the highest fancy 
price in Brighton, to go into the stables of milk producers. It 
is said by the milk inspectors of Boston that they have no trouble 
with the milk from Ayrshire herds, it being up to the 13 per cent 
total solids required by Massachusetts law. 

The average yield of Ayrshire cows is a little over 6000 lbs. 
of milk in a year, on ordinary dairy food and care, but there 
are a large number of individual cows with authenticated records 
all the way from 7000 lbs. to over 12,000 lbs. of milk in a year. 

It is only within a very few years that the Ayrshire Breeders' 
Association instituted a system of official tests, and only a few 
of the breeders have entered their herds, consequently we have 
the records of a comparatively small number of cows, but enough 
to show that the Ayrshire cow is by nature a wonderful dairy 
cow^ both in milk and butter production, and that it would be an 
easy matter to produce families of phenomenal cows adapted to 
the production of either butter or milk. 

The association has confined itself chiefly to the yearly tests, 
believing that it is the long period that shows the staying qualiiy 
of the breed and the true value of a dairy cow. 

We have in the ordinary work of the dairy found a number of 
cows that gave from fourteen to nineteen pounds of butter in 
seven days, and from sixty to nearly 100 pounds in the month. 

We have compiled from the official files of the association tests 
the following yields from Individual cows: 

Milk. — 78 cows gave over 8000 lbs. of milk in a year; 5 1 cows 
gave over 8500 lbs. of milk in a year; 43 cows gave over 9000 lbs. 
of milk in a year; 17 cows gave over 9500 lbs. of milk in a year; 



14 COWS gave over 10,000 lbs. of milk in a year; 7 cowsgaveover 
10,500 lbs. of milk in one year; 6 cows gave over 11,000 lbs. of 
milk in one year; 4 cows gave over 11,500 lbs. of milk in one 
year; 2 cows gave over 12,000 lbs. of milk in one year; i cow 
gave over 12,500 lbs. of milk in one year. 

Butter. — 181 cows gave over 300 lbs. of butter each in one year; 
87 cows gave over 350 lbs. of butter each in one year; 33 cows 
gave over 400 lbs. of butter each in one year; 13 cows gave over 
450 lbs. of butter each in one year; 5 cows gave over 500 lbs. of 
butter each in one year; i cow gave nearly 550 lbs. of butter in 
one year; i cow has for the last five consecutive years dropped 
five calves and given an official record of 52,000 lbs. milk and 
2130 lbs. butter. 

The Ayrshire, being a dairy cow, has never been claimed for 
beef or even for a general-purpose cow, but her easy keeping- 
qualities and hardy disposition cause her to lay on flesh rapidly 
when dry, and she wall probably return to her owner in beef 
the full cost of raising her. Farmers who fatten calves for veal 
tell me the calves are small when born, but grow rapidly, so 
that when of age to sell they are large and heavy for their age and 
are good handlers. 

V. Shorthorns as Dairy Cows. 

By the late J. H. Pickrell, Springfield, 111., Secretary American Short- 
horn Breeders' Association. 

Away back in the early history of this country, there 
were occasionally cows imported from England. Buffalo 
and wild game were abundant for meat, but milk, butter, 
and cheese did not come that way. 

As creatures of circumstances, cows were in demand. 
Soon after the Revolutionary War, cattle that were pure- 
bred Shorthorns were imported into Virginia, and after- 
wards, in 1797, found their way into Kentucky. The cows 
were said to be great milkers, and are reported to have 
given as much as 32 quarts of milk per day, and were 
called by the natives " the milk breed." Later importa- 
tions with more particular reference to their beef qualities 
were made, but, in spite of all that had been fed into them 
with that end in view, many of the cows developed into 
remarkably* heavy milkers, and were very noted for their 
large yield of a good quality of milk. 

The late L. F. Allen, in his history of " American Cat- 
tle," published in 1868, says: " We have numerous well- 



DAIRY COWS. 225 

authenticated instances of their. (Shorthorns) giving six, 
seven, eight, and even nine gallons a day, on grass alone, 
in the height of their season, and yielding fourteen to 
eighteen pounds of butter per week, and of holding out in 
their milk in proportionate quantity, as well as other 
breeds of cows, through the year. Cows so much larger 
in size than other kinds should be expected to give more 
than smaller ones that consume less food, and without as- 
serting that they do give more, in proportion to their size, 
it is claimed that when educated and used for the dairy 
chiefly, they give quite as much as others. That the in- 
herent quality of abundant milking exists in the Short- 
horns, no intelligent breeders of them need doubt. Our 
own observation in more than thirty years' experience 
with hundreds of them, first and last, under our own eyes, 
is to ourself evidence of the fact, both in thoroughbreds 
and grades." 

The Columbian dairy tests, though made under un- 
favorable circumstances, proved the milking qualities of 
Shorthorns. I say unfavorable, because the matter was 
not taken hold of soon enough by the American Short- 
horn Breeders' Association, under whose auspices the ex- 
hibit was made, to select the best cows in every instance 
so as to have them bred to produce and have them at their 
highest flow of milk at the proper time. As a conse- 
quence, cows had to be picked up that had produced at 
hap-hazard, and were not in every instance the best that 
might have been used, if selections had been made in sea- 
son to have them bred so as to have them produce just prior 
to the tests. But with all these disadvantages, the two 
strictly acknowledged dairy breeds — bred for that purpose 
almost exclusively — which were selected with the greatest 
care, so much so that it is doubtful whether they could be 
duplicated, had but little the advantage of the Shorthorns in 
the general " round-up," as a few comparisons will prove. 

In test No. i (cheese), with 25 cows of each breed, the 
score stood as follows: 

Jerseys 906. i points 

Shorthorns.... 905.5 " 

Guernseys 871.9 " 



226' DAIRYING. 

In the score for perfection of loo points flavor was counted 
55 points. 

Shorthorns headed the list by taking 504.3 points. 

Jerseys 497-8 " 

Guernseys 489.4 '" 

The cost of production was : 

Shorthorns $99.36 

Jerseys 98. 14 

Guernseys 76.25 

The champion cheese cow of the Jerseys netted $6.97 

" " " " " " Shorthorns netted.. 6.27 

" " " " " " Guernseys " .. 5.27 

In the second test, 90 days, for butter, loss and gain in 
live weight, where maintenance was counted against the 
cows, the net gain was for 

Jerseys (25 cows) $1,323.81 

Guernseys (25 coys) 997-63 

Shorthorns (24 cows) 911-13 

To produce this result it cost the 

Jerseys (25) $587-87 

Shorthorns (24) 506.50 

Guernseys (25) 4S7-25 

The champion 

Shorthorn cow (Nora) produced 3679.8 lbs. of milk. 
Jersey (Brown Bessie) " 3634 " " " 

Guernsey (Materna) " 3548.8 " " " 

When reduced to gain in the products over cost of pro- 
duction, the account stood as follows : 

Jersey cow $73.22 

Guernsey cow 57.82 

Shorthorn cow 52.63 

Again, in tests 2, 3, and 4 (Guernseys were not 
in test No. 4) the three best Shorthorns (one in each 

test, including the two-year-old heifer) gave 5861 lbs. 

While the Jerseys of the same description gave. . 5330 " 

Showing in favor of Shorthorns 531 " 



DAIRY COWS. 227 

In test No. 3 (butter), "go as you please," 
The champion Jersey cow at a cost of $8.57 pro- 
duced net $24.69 

The champion Shorthorn cow at a cost of $8.18 

produced net 19-57 

The champion Guernsey cow at a cost of $5.57 pro- 
duced net i $19.37 

In test No. 4 (heifers) 7 Jerseys cost for food $34.43 

and netted 56.27 

6 Shorthorns cost $23.52 and netted 47-42 

making an average of 13 cents per head in favor of the Jer- 
seys. 

While butter was rated by points, beef was not, and the 
Jerseys got as much allowance per pound for gain in live 
weight as the Shorthorns. 

As hinted above, dairy cows are not always wanted for 
butter alone, or cheese alone, but very frequently to sup- 
ply city customers with good milk for their tables. The 
tests at the Columbian Dairy School proved that for a 
large supply of milk of the best flavor, Shorthorns not 
only were good dairy cows in every sense of the term, but 
that they led the other two breeds. Therefore, if milk of 
good quality and lots of it is wanted. Shorthorn cows can 
supply it, to say nothing of their " general-use " qualities 
that will just suit the farmer who wants milk, butter, 
cheese^ and beef. 

VI. Red Polled Cattle. 

By the late J. McLain Smith, Dayton, Ohio, Secretary Red Polled 
Cattle Club of America.* 

Hornless or polled cattle have existed in the counties of 
Norfolk and Suffolk, England, from time immemorial. 
Originally there were two distinct types: the Suffolks, 
usually of a pale red or dun color, and hence known as 
Suffolk duns — large and rather rough cattle, but celebrated 
for their milking qualities; and the Norfolks, commonly 
deep red in color, smaller, finer, more compact in build, 
not so large milkers, but great favorites with the butcher. 
* Revised by H. A. Martin, Secretary, Gotham, Wis. 



228 DAIRYIi^^G. 

Youatt, speaking of the old Suffolk strain as it existed - 
in his day (some half century ago), says: " In the height 
of the season some of these cows will give as much as eight 
gallons of milk (80 lbs.) in a day, and six gallons (60 lbs.) 
is not an unusual quantity." 

The modern Red Polled cow is a result of the combina- 
tion of these old strains, and it is the aim of the most pro- 
gressive breeders to produce a cow of medium size, blood- 
red in color, of fine bone, smooth and compact of form, 
hardy, docile, fatting easily, and giving a good flow of 
fairly rich milk all the year round. The breed, in other 
words, is being developed as a general farm cow, suited 
to the wants of the general farmer. While the cows can- 
not, I think, compete in flow of milk with the best Hol- 
steins, or in yield of butter with the best Jerseys, and the 
steers have not, as yet, taken a place in the front rank at 
the fat-stock shows, it is believed that the breed combines 
the several desirable traits as well at least as any other, and 
with them the equally essential qualities of hardiness, do- 
cility, and a hornless head. As an illustration of the points 
named, and a proof of their possible combination, the cow 
No. 2213, Gleaner, V, 9, :s credited in 1894, according to 
the accepted record of the owner, with a yield of 14,189 lbs. 
of milk, an average of 38 86 lbs. a day for the entire year. 
The cow was then twelve years old, and was milking with 
her tenth calf (or tenth calving, as one or more of them 
produced twins). 

Among these is a pair of twins (Freemartins), shown 
as fat stock, at Norwich and London, England. The steer 
(ist and cup at Norfolk and ist at Smithfield") weighed at 
I year 5| months old, 1258 lbs., and when shown again, 
at 2 years 6 months old, had a live weight of 1735 lbs., a 
gain in a few days over a year of 497 lbs., and a gain 
from birth of about 2.12 !bs. a day. The heifer, twin to 
above (ist and reserve foi cup at Norfolk and ist and 
reserve for cup at Smithfield), had a live weight when 
shown (2 years 6 months old) of 1452 lbs., a gain from birth 
of nearly 1.8 lbs. a day. 



DAIEY COWS. 229 

An illustration nearer home is reported by Dr. J. R. 
Slingerland, Trustee of the Shaker Society at Union Vil- 
lage, O. In January, 1895, he bought 35 head of Shorthorn 
steers, coming 2 years old, for feeding. At the same time 
they had 18 head, the same age, of their own breeding, the 
produce of a Red Polled bull on Shorthorn cows. At the 
time named the full-blood Shorthorns averaged 940 lbs. in 
weight, and the cross-breds 790 lbs. All were pastured the 
summer of 1895, fed out in the late fall, and sold to the 
same buyer on the same day in January, 1S96. 

The full-blood steers consumed an average of 85 bushels 
of corn, besides hay and corn-fodder, in fatting, and weighed 
v/hen sold an average of 1540 lbs. each — a gain of 600 lbs. 
in the year. They sold for $4 a hundred. The polled cross- 
breds consumed an average of 50 bushels of corn, with 
corn-fodder only for roughage, and weighed when sold an 
average of 1492 lbs. — a gain in the year of 702 lbs. They 
sold for $4.25 a hundred. 

The Red Polled bull, Osman 1251, used in producing the 
cross-bred steers in this trial, is the son of a full sister to 
Eleanor, and is the sire of many fine dairy cows. 

In appearance the Red Polls greatly resemble Devons, 
save the horns, and except that they are somewhat larger, 
and the cows, as a rule, are better milkers. They have the 
same rich color, fine bone, round, smooth, compact form, 
free from prominent points, and the same muscular habit 
and active disposition ; and their meat is of the same fine- 
grained, juicy character. 

Milking Qtialities. — The modern Red Polled cow does not 
milk so largely as the old Suffolk, but her milk is of better 
quality. Sixty pounds a day, which Youatt says in his time 
was not unusual, is now, I think, somewhat rare. Four 
and a half to five gallons a day, or say 40 to 45 lbs., is a 
good yield from a mature cow in the flush of the season. 
But she will easily give, with proper care, 6000 to 8000 lbs. 
in a year, and some will considerably exceed this. In the 
report of English herds, published in the Red Polled Herd 
Book, the average yields of mature cows in the best herds 
is fiom 5000 to over 7000 lbs. a year. In Lord Rothchild's 



230 DAIRYING. 

herd, 22 cows, seven milking with first or second calf, gave 
in 1895 an average of 7744^ lbs. of milk each. In my own 
little herd the mature cows will average over 6000 lbs. of 
milk a year and 4 per cent of fat. 

Beef Qualities. — In this line, so far, we are entirely de- 
pendent for facts on the English records. No full-blood 
steers of the breed have as yet been shown in this country. 
A few samples will suffice. At the Smithfield Club Show in 
i8Sg, two Red Polled steers, two years old, showed the 
largest daily gain of anything on exhibition that old — 2.18 
lbs. and 2.29 lbs., respectively. At the Smithfield Club 
Show of 1890 a Red Polled steer dressed the highest per 
cent of his live weight of any animal slaughtered — 73.72 
per cent. This, according to the London Live Stock Jotirnal, 
has only once been exceeded in England— by a cross-bred 
steer, which dressed 74 per cent of his live weight. 

At the fat-stock shows in England in 1894 the following 
live weights were recorded : A steer i year \o\ months, 
1374 lbs., and a year later 1702 lbs. ; a steer i year loj 
months, 1323 lbs.; a steer i year io| months, 1208 lbs., and 
a year later 1656 lbs. ; a steer i year 9 months, 1250 lbs., a 
year later 1728 lbs., and at 3 years 9 months 2112 lbs. 

Mature Red Polled cows, in breeding condition, should 
weigh 1200 to 1400 lbs., and bulls 1800 to 2000 lbs. A few 
will greatly excee'd these weights, but many, as now bred, 
are smaller. These, however, are about the weights at- 
tained in the best herds. 

VII. Devon Cattle. 
By L. P. Sbsson, Wheeling, W. Va., Secretary American Devon Cattle Club. 

The Devon breed of cattle is one of the oldest of the 
English cattle. Their native home is on the highlands of 
Devonshire, in southwestern England. Our records show 
that in the year 1800 Messrs. Winthrop & Davenport im- 
ported Devons into Plymouth, Mass. ; in 1805 General Eaton 
imported some into Otsego county. New York; in 1817 Mr. 
George Patterson came into possession of some Devons, 
brought over by T. W, Coke, who presented them to a 



DAIRY COWS. 231 

brother of George Patterson; these afterward were the 
foundation of the above-mentioned herd (George Patter- 
son of Sykesville^ Md.). These and other animals im- 
ported by Mr. Patterson, our records show, were all brought 
from Devonshire, and from the best that could be found 
there. 

Others were imported into New York State; among im- 
porters whom we might mention are John Cowlin of Trux- 
ton, N. J.; L. F. Allen, Miles Vernon, A. Becket, W. P. 
& C. S. Wainwright, Col. L. G. Morris, D. W. Catlin, W. 
R. Sanford, J. Howard McHenry of Pikesville, Md.; C. P. 
Halcomb of Delaware, and others. Later importations are 
by James Murray of Virginia, R. W. Cameron of New 
York, Frank Brown of Baltimore, Md., and still later John 
Hudson, Moweaqua, 111., Dr. J. Cheston Morris, Philadel- 
phia, Pa., and A. S. Worden, Ulysses, Pa. 

As to the beef qualities of the Devons one only has to 
turn to the records of the markets of the country to see 
that they are among the leading beefers, bringing the top 
prices at all times. As to milk and butter production from 
Devons, it will be found from records that they produce 
from 12 to 25 lbs. of butter per week. Mr. A. E. Baker, of 
Wisconsin, says his cows average him 365 lbs. of butter 
per cow for the year, which is about as much as any breed 
will do on farmers' feed and care. Dr. J. Cheston Morris 
says, in regard to Devons for milk: " A herd of Devons may 
be relied upon to give an annual yield of 2000 quarts of 
milk from each cow; the length of the period averages be- 
tween 10 and II months, though single cows will continue 
in profit from 13 to 14 months. An average yield of seven 
quarts daily from each cow may therefore be expected, 
and an examination of milk records of Devon herds will 
show that they are remarkably uniform in their yields. 
As comparatively little attention has been paid to their 
milking qualities, a large improvement may be looked for 
by proper selection and breeding. As my animals weigh 
only 700 lbs. each, it follows that each cow has given be- 
tween five and six times her own weight in milk during 
the course of the year, besides maintaining her own 



232 DAIRYING. 

weight, and producing healthy offspring. This I consider 
a physiological fact well worthy of notice, and very 
creditable to the ' little red cow.' Of course the same 
nutritive power applied in other directions would give 
beef-producing results, such as we all know of." 

Devon cattle are active and very hardy, qualities that 
make them especially valuable in dry or mountainous re- 
gions. The bulls are quite intelligent and active, and are 
not as liable to be cross as some other breeds;- they weigh 
from 1800 to 2000 lbs. at three to four years old. The cows 
have strong vital organs, and large digestive and assimi- 
lating powers. Their udders are not large for the amoun> 
of milk they give, with good elastic teats, seldom sore. 
The milk is of good quality, either as food for infants and 
invalids, for the manufacture of butter or cheese, or for 
market delivery; it does not churn in the cans, nor look 
blue in the bottle. 

Devons will pay their way at the dairy as well as in the 
feeder's stable; they will keep in good condition, and look 
plump and sleek on pasture that other breeds can hardly 
live on; they are easy keepers, good producers of the finest 
kind of milk, and also make the very best quality of beef. 

VIII. Dutch Belted Cattle. 

By H. B. Richards, Easton, Penna., Secretary Dutch Belted Cattle Asso. 
elation of America. 

Dutch belted cattle are natives of Holland, and originated 
in that country during the seventeenth century, when the 
cattle interests of Holland were in the most thrifty condi- 
tion; in fact, it was the chief industry of the country. At 
that time breeding had been developed to a science, and 
cattle of remarkable contrast of color were bred whose 
foundation color was black, with a broad white band 
around the centre of the body, a white head, a black ring 
around each eye, and a full white tail. Wonderful and 
remarkable as it may appear, a feat was accomplished 
during that period that would defy our m6dern breeders 
and can be safely classified as a lost art. 

Dutch belted cattle became a classified breed and were 



DAIRY COWS. 233 

bred to a remarkably high standard. For several centuries 
they were owned and controlled by the nobility keeping 
them pure and limiting their number to their ownership. 
They were first imported into this country about the mid- 
dle of the present century, the importers procuring the 
finest herds in Holland; the herds in the United States 
to-day are purely of American breeding. 

The American Association have adopted as their standard 
of color a pure black, with a continuous white belt around 
their body, beginning behind the shoulders and extending 
nearly to the hips; this sharp contrast of colors makes a 
beautiful and imposing contrast and a most beautiful 
sight; when seen in number grazing on the green, they are 
admired by all, even if not interested in cattle or farm- 
ing. This belt is almost invariably reproduced, and is 
so perfectly fixed that it will crop out in their grades for 
many generations, even against cold strains of blood; the 
potency of this feature is very striking, as the belt is often 
reproduced after the foundation color is lost; and grades 
of any foundation color can be produced to an unlimited 
extent. 

Their form is a strong characterized dairy type, medium 
size, and possessing all the qualifications of an ideal dairy 
animal. They are strictly a dairy breed, and are large and 
persistent milkers; strong constitutions, peaceable and 
quiet dispositions of a very compact form. Cows range 
from eight to twelve hundred, and bulls reach eighteen 
to twenty hundred. The late P. T. Barnum, the showman 
of national fame, said: "They struck my lancy in Holland 
about 1850; I imported a few, and then found their unique 
and novel appearance not their only quality, for they 
proved to be wonderful milkers, far superior to any other 
cattle to which my attention has been drawn." 

Nearly all the herds now in the United States are owned 
in New York, Pennsylvania, and Massachusetts, with a 
few scattering South and West. A herd of eighteen were 
exhibited at the World's Columbian Exposition at Chicago, 
where they attracted great attention and were admired by 
thousards who had never heard of such novel ana beauiiiul 



234 DAIRYING. 

cattle before. This herd was sold and exported to a wealthy 
resident of the City of Mexico, where they are now kept 
and are doing well in that congenial climate. There is an 
association of breeders of these cattle known as the Dutch 
Belted Cattle Association of America, who have adopted a 
high standard of excellence, requiring breeders to breed 
typical animals of correct markings, thereby gaining 
uniformity and correctness of type. The association issues 
a herd-book, of which vol. 8, of recent issue, is the last 
number. 

IX. Brown-Sw^iss Cattle. 

By N. S. Fish, Groton, Conn., late Secretary Brown-Swiss Cattle 
Breeders' Association.* 

Brown-Swiss cattle were first imported into this coun- 
try by Mr. Henry M. Clarke of Belmont, Mas'-., in 1869. 
He imported seven cows and one bull; since then there 
have been several importations. Most of the animals 
have come from the famed Canton of Schwyz, and the 
adjacent Cantons of Zug, Uri, and Unterwalden. The Rigi 
mountains, covered to their tops with fine, rich herbage, lie 
here, and some of the finest breeds of cattle in the whole 
country are here produced, the cattle grazing in the valley 
in winter and on the mountains in summer. 

The United States consul at Zurich in 1882 made a report 
to our government of the cattle and dairy interest of 
Switzerland. He writes: " For a hundred years Switzer- 
land has been famous for the production of its dairies. At 
the cattle show of Paris, 1878, every Swiss cow exhibited 
bore away a prize in competition with exhibits from Hol- 
land, England, Denmark, and other famous cattle countries. 

The Brown-Swiss cattle are fed on grass or hay only 
the year through. A fair average for cows in Canton 
Zurich is ten quarts of milk per day the milking-year 
through; in Schwyz and Zug the average is but little 
less." 

The consul of St. Gall says: "When a farmer in Ger- 
many, Italy, or France wishes to improve his breed, he 
* Revised by C. D. Nixon, Secretary, Owego, N. Y. 



DAIRY r-ows. 235 

makes a selection from Swiss herds as the healthiest and 
hardiest known to the herd-book. . . . Tne Brown- 
Swiss is considered the dairy breed par excellence of Swit- 
zerland; it not only gives more milk, but this is richer 
than any other European breed of cattle." 

Marked Characteristics. — Size large; form firm; color 
shades from dark to light chestnut brown. The tuft of 
hair between the horns, on the inside of ear, and a narrow 
line along the back generally light. Horns rather short, 
waxey, with black tips. Nose black, with mealy-colored 
band surrounding nose. Switch, hoofs, and tongue black. 
Straight hind legs, wide thighs, and heavy quarters. The 
cows often weigh 1600 lbs., bulls 2000 lbs. Calves large, 
some weighing no lbs. when dropped. They mature fast, 
have healthy constitutions, yielding generous returns for 
whatever care, time, labor, or money is expended on them. 

A cow shown at the Chicago Fat Stock Show in November, 
1891. gave in three days 245 lbs. of milk, showing 9.32 lbs. of 
butter-fat by the Babcock test, yielding during one day of 
the test 31^ lbs. of fat, the largest amount of butter-fat ever 
shown at an official test of any cow of any breed up to that 
time. The cow Muotta calved about November i, 1893, 
and in February, 1894, gave 67 lbs. of milk in one day. 

The milk of Brown-Swiss cows has a sweet flavor which 
is very noticeable, and makes it very desirable for family 
use. With good farm care the cows give under favorable 
circumstances from 20 to 25 quarts of milk per day. They 
make the finest of beef and veal; when intenaed to be 
used for working oxen, they are easily broken and are fast 
walkers. 

The cows are persistent milkers, with good teats; where 
used to produce grade animals they give the best of sat- 
isfaction, with the Swiss characteristics predominating. 
There are now about 5300 recorded animals in this country, 
located in almost every State, and some in Mexico. 



236 DAIRTIKG. 

YIELD OF MILK AND FAT FROM DAIRY COWS, 

A good dairy cow should give at least 5000 pounds ol 
milk during a whole period of lactation. As the quality 01 
milk given by different cows varies greatly, however, as 
will be apparent from the tables given in the following, the 
yield of fat produced during a lactation period is a better 
standard to go by than that of the milk; three-fourths of a 
pound of tat per day for an average of 300 days may be con- 
sidered a good yield (total 225 pounds). Many dairy farmers 
aim to have all mature cows in their herds produce a pound 
of fat, on the average, for every day in the year. To do 
this, a cow whose milk tests about 4 per cent, must give 25 
pounds of milk a day (3 gallons) as an average for the 
whole year; a cow producing 3 per cent milk must give 33^ 
pounds of milk daily, and one producing 5 per cent milk 
must yield 20 pounds of milk daily, on the average, etc. 

The flow of milk is usually at its highest shortly after 
calving, and then gradually decreases, the rate of decrease 
being determined by the inbred milking qualities of the 
cow and the system of feeding practised. The average de- 
crease in milk yield for good dairy cows on good feed is 
from one half to three fourths of a pound per head per ten 
days. Where cows are not fed liberally and receive but lit- 
tle concentrated feed, the decrease will be more marked, 
and often exceed one pound of milk per head per ten days. 
The decrease is m.ore marked during the latter stages of 
the period of lactation than in the earlier ones, and is also 
more marked in cows with poorly developed milking qual- 
ities than in good dairy cows. A cow is considered at her 
best when from five to seven years old; the constitutional 
strength of the animal, the system of feeding practised, 
and the general treatment given the cow will determine 
her period of usefulness. 

The quality of the milk produced by individual cows 
generally remains fairly uniform through the greater por- 
tion of the lactation period, and is not permanently influ- 
enced in any marked manner by feed or any external 
conditions. During the last couple of months, when the 



DAIRY COWS. 



237 



yield of milk is decreasing more rapidly than before, the 
quality is generally improved to some extent, the variation 
being, as a rule, within i per cent. Variations of several 
per Cjents of fat may sometimes occur from day to day, or 
milking to milking, in the milk from single cows; variations 
amounting to i per cent are common. Herd milk varies 
much less, the percentages of fat on subsequent days being 
as a rule within two tenths of one per cent, and only excep- 
tionally near one per cent. 

RESULTS OF TESTS OF DAIRY BREEDS 

Conducted by American Agricultviral 
Experiment Stations. 



Breed. 



New Yi.)RK 

(Geneva): 

Jersey 

Guernsey 

Holsiein 

Ayrshire . .. . . 

Short Horn 

Devon 

American Hol- 

derness 

Maine: 

Jersey. 

Holstein 

Ayrshire 

New Jersey: 

Jersey ... 

Guernsey 

Holsiein 

Ayishire 

Short Horn . . . 






Average 

Yields per 

Lactation 

Period. 



Milk. Fat 



lbs. 

5045 
53B5 
7918 
6824 
6055 
3984 

5721 



4 ' 5460 

3 , 8369 

4 i 6612 

3 7695 

4 i 7446 

3 8455 

4 j 7461 

3 : 10457 



lbs. 
282.1 

285 5 
266.1 
244.8 
269.0 
•83. 3 

213-1 

297.0 
285 o 
233-0 

376.3 
379 -o 
300.2 
275-3 
396.3 



5.60 
5 30 

3.60 
4.44 
4.60 

3-73 

5-50 
3-47 
3.67 



5.09 

3 -.55 
3-69 
3-79 



Average Co.st of 



Food 


Produc- 


Produc- 


Eaten 


ing TOO 


ing I lb. 


per Day. 


lbs. Milk. 


Fat. 


cents 


cents 


cents 


12.4 


90 


16. 1 


12-5 


86 


16.1 


'3-9 


65 


19. 1 


13-5 


74 


20.2 


12.7 


78 


17.2 


10.3 


94 


20.5 


12.2 


76 


20.1 


16.2 


113. 


20.4 


19-5 


85.2 


25.2 


17. 1 


94-9 


26.8 


16. 1 


87.1 


17.9 


14.9 


78.1 


15-3 


19-3 


79-3 


22.4 


15.0 


76.0 


20.6 


15-4 


79.2 


20.6 



Averages /or all Breeds and Lactation Periods. 



Jersey 

Guernsey 

Holstein 

Ayrshire ....... 

Short Horn 

Devon 

.\merican Hoi- 
derness 



Total 



9 


18 


5579 


301. 1 


5.40 


8 


10 


6210 


322 9 


S.20 


9 


10 


82 IS 


282.0 


3 43 


10 


20 


6909 


248.5 


3 60 


4 


5 


8696 


345-4 


3.Q7 


3 


5 


3984 


'83-3 


4.60 


2 


4 


5721 


213. 1 


3-73 


45 


72 









94.0 

76.0 



17.4 

15-8 
21. 5 
21.5 
19.4 
20.5 

20.1 



238 DAIRYING. 

The animals included in the foregqing breed tests ranl< 
on the average as follows: 

1. As to yield of fat: Shorthorn, Guernsey, Jersey, Hol- 
stein, Ayrshire, American Holderness, Devon. 

2. As to cost of producing i Ih. of fat: Guernsey, Jersey, 
Shorthorn, American Holderness, Devon, Holstein and 
Ayrshire, 

3. As to yield of 7uilk : Shorthorn, Holstein, Ayrshire, 
Guernsey, American Holderness, Jersey, Devon. 

4. As to cost of producing lOO lbs. of milk: Holstein, 
American Holderness, Ayrshire, Shorthorn, Guernsey, 
Devon, Jersey. 

5. As to cost of food: Devon, American Holderness, 
Guernsey, Jersey, Shorthorn, Ayrshire, Holstein. 

6. As to richness of milk: Jersey, Guernsey, Devon, Short- 
horn, American Holderness, Ayrshire, Holstein. 

RESULTS OF BREED TESTS CONDUCTED AT 
WORLD'S COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 

A. Breed Tesi No. I (Cheese Test), May 10 to 25. 
Milk Fat Price of 

Pro- Pro- Cheese, Cheese Cost 

duced, duced, 'bs. per lb., of Net 

lbs. lbs. cent.s. Feed. Gain. 

zsJerseys 13,2964 601 91 1451.8 13-36 $98.14 $119.82 

25 Guernseys 10,938.6 488.42 1130.6 11.95 76.25 88.30 

25Short-horns 12,186.9 436.60 1077.6 1300 99-36 81.36 

B. Breed Test No. 2 (Ninety-day Butter Test), June i to Aug. 29. 

Butter Price of 
credited Butter. 

25 Jerseys.. 73,488.8 3516.08 4274.01 $1747-37 $587-50 $1323-81 

25 Guernseys 61,781.7 2784.56 3360.43 1355-44 484-14 997-64 

24 Shoit-horns 66,263.2 2409,97 2890.87 1171.77 501.79 910.12 

Averages per day per cow. 

Fat, Cost of 

per cent. Food. 

Jerseys 32.7 1.56 4.78 26.1 cts. 

Guernseys 27.5 1.24 4.51 21.5 " 

Short-horns 30.7 1.12 3.64 23.2 " 

C. Breed Test No. 3 (Thirty-day Butter Test), Aug. 29 to Sept. 28. 

Butter Price of 
credited Butter. 

15 Jerseys 13,921-9 685.81 83721 I385.59 $111.24 $274^3 

15 Guernseys 13,5184 597 96 724-17 329-77 92-77 237.00 

15 Short-horns 15,618.3 555-43 662.67 303-69 104.55 198.89 

D. Breed Test No. 4 (Heifer Test), Sept 30 to Oct. 20. 

7 Jerseys 3356.6 155-38 194-23 $77-69 $34-44 $56.28 

6 Short-horns 2581.0 97.89 122.36 48.95 23-53 47-42 



DAIRY COWS. 



239 



RESULTS OF "COW DEMONSTRATION" AT LOUISIANA 
PURCHASE EXPOSITION, ST. LOUIS, 1904. (Farrington.) 



Average data jor number of cows 
Milk per day (av. for i 20 days) 

lbs 

Per cent fat in milk 

Butter-fat per day, lbs 

Solids not fat per day, lbs. . 

Feed cost per qt. of milk, cts. 

*' *• « lb butter, cts. 

Data for best cows: 

Milk per day. lbs 

Per cent fat in milk 

Butter-fat per day, lbs 

Solids not fat per day lbs. . , 



Brown- 
Swiss. 


Hol- 
steins. 


Jerseys. 


5 


15 


25 


44. 2 


53-4 


41 -5 


3.62 


3-43 


4.70 


1.596 


1.832 


T . QS6 


3-92 


4.24 


3.63 


I .24 


1.07 


I. 16 


14-7 


13-5 


10.5 


51. 


67.5 


48.4 


3-4 


3-5 


4.8 


1.748 


2.355 


2.334 


4.36 


5-17 


4.36 



Short- 
horns. 



28 

34-6 
3.80 
I . 277 
2.98 
1.32 

iS-3 



43.4 
4.0 
I -737 
3-72 



HIGHEST RECORD FOR YIELD OF BUTTER-FAT 

During Twenty-four Hours Made by any Cow in a 
Public Test. 



At a Fair. 
Brienz, Brown-Swiss, 11 years old. 
weighing 1395 lbs. 
Average daily yield of 

milk 81.7 lbs. 

Average daily yield of 

fat 3.1 1 " 

Average per cent of fat 

in day's milk 3.81 

(American Dairy Show, Chicago, 
1 891 ; 3-day test.) 



At Home. 
DeKol Witkop Wayne 2d, No. 
58,709, H.-F. H. B. 

Yield of milk 70.7 lbs. 

"fat 4-77 " 

Average per cent of 

fat in day's milk . . 6.75 
(March 1-2, 1908. 7-day test, 
Feb. 29-Mar. 7, 1908, conducted 
by the Cornell Univ. (N. Y.) 
Experiment Station; total yield 
for week, 484.5 lbs. milk and 
23.095 lbs. fat; average per 
cent of fat in milk, 4.77); test 
commenced 6 days from last 
calving; age of cow, 6 years 
10 months). 



240 



DAIRYING. 



OFFICIAL RECORDS FOR MII^K AND BUTTi^il' 
FAT PRODUCTION. 





Year. 


Thirty Days. 


Seven Days. 


Twenty-four 
Hours. 


(A) Milk 








Records. 










Ayrshire .... 


Polly Puss. 

No. 16,296 


Finlaystone 

Magf!;ie 3cl. 


Duchess of 
Smithtield, 








I 2,632 lbs 


No. 19,217, 
1570 lbs. 


No. 4256, 
463* lbs. 




Guernsey . . 


Dolly Bloom, 


Same, 


Queen Deette, 


Same, 




No. 12,770, 


1654.7 lbs. 


413-1 lbs. 


61.2 lbs. 




17,297.5 lbs. 








Holstein ... 


Pietertje 


DeKol 


Same, 


Same, 




2d, No. 


Creamelle, 


780.6 lbs. 


119.7 lbs. 




,3 2 7,?H, 


No. 59,1 58, 








30,318 lbs. 


3200.3 lbs. 






Jersey 


Peer's Sur- 


Same, 


Jacoba Irene, 


Same, 




prise, 


1448.2 lbs. 


No. 146,443 


66.5 lbs. 




No. 144.248, 




444-4 lbs. 






14.452.2 lbs. 








Shorthorn . . . 


Pansy of 


Kitty Clay 


Same, 


Same, 




Stanton, 


4th 
1592.0 lbs. 


396.4 lbs. 


58.2 lbs. 




10,054.8 lbs. 






Red Polled 


Hera N-6, 




Popsey 3d, 


Hera N-6, 




No. 350s, 




U-43,No.' 


No. 3505, 




12,203 lbs. 




9689, 
39 3 1 lbs. 


63.5 lbs. 


(B) Butter- 










fat Records 










Ayrshire .... 


T?<ini ATvrtIp 


Cad's Beauty. 

No. 1 3,606, 


Tjukolela, 




469.4 lbs. 


No. 1 2,357, 








81. ribs. 


16.3 lbs. 




Guernsey . . . 


Yeksa Sun- 


Dolly Bloom, 


Queen Deette 


Same, 




beam, No. 


No. 1 2,770 


No. 9704, 


2.72 lbs. 




15,4.^0. 
857.15 lbs. 
Colantha 


87.70 lbs. 


16.22 lbs. 




Holstein .... 


Same, 


Same, 


DeKolWit- 




4th 's 


110.83 lbs. 


28.176 lbs. 


kop Wayne, 




Johanna, 






2d,* 




No. 48,577. 






No. 58,709, 




998.26 lbs. 






4.77 lbs. 


Jersey 


Olive Dunn, 

No. 188.832 


Same 


Jacoba Irene, 




61.58 lbs. 


No. 146,448,' 






6 7 1. 86 lbs. 




20.56 lbs. 




Shorthorn . . . 


Pansy of 


i6th Belle of 


Same, 


Same, 




Stanton. 


Trowbridge, 


14.33 lbs. 


2.35 lbs. 


Red Polled. . 


391.35 lbs. 
Hera N-6, 


59.59 lbs. 


Popsey 3d. 


Hera N-6. 




No. 3505. 




U-43., No. 


No. 3505, ^ 




502.3 lbs. 




14.6 lbs. 


3.86 lbs. m 



* See p. 239. 



DAIRY COWS. 



241 



RESULTS OF ENGLISH MILKING TRIALS. 

(Averages of breed-tests conducted at the annual dairy shows of the Brij 
ish Dairy Farmers' Assoc, 1879-98, inclusive.) 






Breed. 



Shorthorns 

Jerseys 

Guernseys 

Holsteins (Dutch) 

Ayrshires 

Devons 

Red Polls 

Welsh 

Aberdeen Angus. 
Kerries and Dex- 
ter Kerries 

Crosses 



Aver- 
age 
Yield of 
Milk 

Day. 


Total Solids. 


Fat. 


Solids 


Yield 
per 
Day. 


Per 
Cent 


Yield 
Day. 


Per 
Cent. 


Fat, 

Per 

Cent. 


lbs. 


lbs. 




lbs. 






45-4 
28.9 
30.6 


5-77 
4.18 
413 


12.72 
14.46 
13-50 


1.70 
1-44 
1.41 


3.75 
4.98 
4.61 


8.97 
9-48 
8.89 


45-2 


5-53 


12.25 


1-54 


341 


8.84 


42.2 


5.61 


13.20 


1-77 


4.19 


9.10 


30.1 
41.9 
46.0 


4-32 
5.26 
.■5.86 


14.34 
12.55 
12.74 


1.48 
1-54 
1. 91 


4.90 
3.68 
4.16 


9.44 
8.87 
8.58 


60.3 


8.29 


13-74 


3.01 


4.99 


8.75 


27.1 


3.62 


13-36 


1.18 


4.. 36 


g.oo 


53-1 


7.07 


13-31 


2.07 


3-90 


9.41 



Live 
Weight. 



lbs. 
1405(117)* 
856(157) 
1026 (49) 
'383 (3) 
1046 (21) 

1162 (32) 



787 (4O 
.230 (38) 



* Average for 117 animals. 



REQUIREMENTS FOR ADMISSION TO THE ADVANCED 
REGISTER OF A3IERICAN CATTLE CLUBS. 





Guernsey. 


Holstein. 


Jersey. 


Age at Last 
Calving. 


7 -day 
Record. 


Year 
Record. 


7-day 
Record. 


7-day 
Record. 


Year 
Record. 




Lbs. Butter-fat. 


2 years old 

3 " " 

4 ; ' ; ; 

Increased require- 
ment per day lb. 


10. 
11.66 
13.32 
I5-0 

.00456 


280.5 
287 
323 
360 

' . I 


7.2 

8.8 
10.4 
12.0 

.00439* 


1 

[•12.0 
i 


260 (2^yrs.) 

300 
350 
400 









* No increase in case of mature cows. 



242 



DAIRYING. 



AVERAGE PER CENT OF FAT AND PRODUC- 
TION OF MILK AND BUTTER FAT BY PURE- 
BRED DAIRY COWS, PER BREED.* 



Breed. 



Jersey 

Guernsey 

Holstein-Friesian 

Shorthorn 

Ayrshire 

Red Polled 

Brown Swiss. . . . 

Devon 

Dutch Belted. . . 
Polled Jersey. . . . 
French Canadian. 











1 
Average 


No. of 


Per Cent 


No. of 


Daily 


Cows. 


Fat. 


Cows. 


Milk 
Yield. 








lbs. 


491 


4.98 


42s 


27-3 


191 


4 


77 


151 


29.7 


679 


3 


28 


503 


48.8 


370 


3 


73 


27s 


43.5 


108 


3 


«4 


50 


37.0 


50 


3 


73 


50 


37-3 


20 


3 


78 


14 


37.3 


SO 


4 


57 


27 


13.2 


5 


3 


40 


5 


27.2 


s 


4 


66 


5 


22.9 


5 


3 


99 


5 


27.0 




* See Woll, On the Average Composition of Milk 
of Different Breeds (Wis. Exp. Sta., Report igoi). 



Pure-bred Cows 



AVERAGE PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION OF MILK 
FROM DIFFERENT BREEDS. (Konig.) 



Name of Bre*"!. 



Stayer (Austrian) .... 
Simmenthal (Swiss). . 
Tillerthal (Tyrolean). 
Vorarlberg (Austrian) 

Algau (Bavarian) 

Bohemian 

Holstein 

Oldenburg (German). 

Angler (Danish) 

Short-horn 

Devon 

Ayrshire 

Jersey 

Guernsey 

French 

Scandinavian 



86.90 

87 26 

87.43 

87.38 

87 

86.00 

88.04 

87.95 

88.15 

87.20 

86.57 

86.93 

85.90 

85.39 

87.20 



4.17 
3-79 
3 70 
3-54 
3.20 
5 06 
3.25 
3.38 
3.12 
3.47 
4-44 
3.58 
4.32 
5." 
3.90 
3.51 



U 






4.96 
5.8t 
5-IO 
5.40 
5-13 
4.63 
4.16 
4.81 

5-43 

5 43 
5.70 
4.38 
5.06 
4-97 



.73 
.70 
.70 
.77 
•57 
.64 
•56 
.76 

:69 

.64 
.64 
•74 

:.i4(?) 
•77 
.76 



1^' 



13.10 

12.74 

12.57 

12.62 

12.12 

14.00 

11.96 

12.05 

11.85 

12.80 

13 43 

13.07 

14.11 

14.6 

12.80 

12.00 



ofci 



8.93 
8.95 
' 87 
9.08 
8.92 
8 94 
8.71 
8.67 
8.73 
9.33 
8.99 

9-49 
9.78 
9.5a 
8.90 
8.4g 



DAIRY COWG. 243 

METHODS OF JUDGING THE VALUE OF DAIRY 
COWS. 

The British Dairy Farmers'' Association, which has con- 
ducted tests of dairy cows at their annual fair for the last 
twenty years, has during late years '.cored the dairy cows 
competing for premiums according to the following scale ; 

I point for each pound of milk; 
20 points for each pound of fat; 
4 points for each pound of solids not fat. 
I point for each ten days in milk after the first twenty 
days (limit 200 days). 
10 points are deducted from the total score for each 
per cent, of fat below three per cent in the milk. 

The cows entered in the test are separated into four 
classes, according to the breed, each class being divided 
into two divisions, cows and heifers. The classes are 
Shorthorns, Jerseys, Guernseys, and cross-breeds. 

Other associations abroad or in this country have not 
generally followed any definite plan from year to year in 
awarding premiums to dairy cows at fairs, the awards having 
been given to cows producing most milk, or richest milk, 
or most butter-fat, or most solids, during the test, which 
may have lasted one to three days. At the Vermont State 
Fair, 1S89, the following points were given : For each 20 
days since calving, i point ; for each 10 days of gestation, 
I point • for each 2 oz. of total solids in 24 hours' milk, i 
point ; for each oz. of butter-fat in 24 hours' milk, 2 points; 
for each 2 oz. of salted butter from 24 hours' milk, i point. 
In the milking trials conducted by the Royal Agricultural 
Society of England, the size of the cows has been con- 
sidered, the cows being, as a rule, separated into two 
classes, viz., over and under i roo lbs. live vveight. 

From the best information at hand at the present, the 
system of awards adopted by the British Dairy Farmers' 
Association, and given above, must be considered the most 
perfect and the most just to all concerned. Its main short- 
comings lie, as it would seem, in its not considering the 
food eaten by each animal during the test, and in the fact 
that the test is made at the fair, and not at home under 



244 DAIRYING. 

every-day conditions and in surroundings familiar to the 
animals. The former objection would be removed by tak- 
ing into account the dry matter in the food eaten, as shown 
by chemical analysis. 

BUYING AND SELLING COWS BY TESTS OF THEIR 
MILK. (Emery.) 

The money value of a cow may be estimated by multi- 
plying the number of gallons of milk which the cow gives 
by 12, adding to or subtracting from this product one dollar 
for every one fourth per cent of fat in the milk abeve or 
below 3.5 per cent. 

., , pounds of milk per day , . , . 

Value =- — — X 12 -}-4(per cent fat -q.s». 

(See Bull. No. 113, N. C. Exp. Station.) 



FIFTY DAIRY RULES. 

(U. S. Department of Agriculture.) 
T/ie Owner and his Helpers. — i. Read current dairy liter- 
ature and keep posted on new ideas. 

2. Observe and enforce the utmost cleanliness about the 
cattle, their attendants, the stable, the dairy, and all uten- 
sils. 

3. A person suffering from any disease, or who has been 
exposed to a contagious disease, must remain away from 
the cows and the milk. 

The Stable. — 4. Keep dairy cattle in a room or building 
by themselves. It is preferable to have no cellar below and 
no storage loft above. 

5. Stables should be well ventilated, lighted, and drained; 
should have tight floors and walls and be plainly con- 
structed. 

6. Never use musty or dirty litter. 

7. Allow no strong-smelling material in the stable for any 
length of time. Store the manure under cover outside the 



DAIKY COWS. '245 

cow-stable, and remove it to a distance as often as practi- 
cable. 

8. Whitewash the stable once or twice a year ; use land 
plaster in the manure-gutters daily. 

9. Use no dry, dusty feed just previous to milking ; if 
fodder is dusty, sprinkle it before it is fed. 

10. Clean and thoroughly air the stable before milking ; 
in hot weather sprinkle the floor. 

11. Keep the stable and dairy-room in good condition, 
and then insist that the dairy, factory, or place where the 
milk goes be kept equally well. 

The Cozvs. — 12. Have the herd examined at least twice a 
year by a skilled veterinarian. 

13. Promptly remove from the herd any animal suspected 
of being in bad health, and reject her milk. Never add an 
animal to the herd until certain it is free from disease, espe- 
cially tuberculosis. 

14. Do not move cows faster than a comfortable walk 
while on the way to place of milking or feeding. 

15. Never allow the cows to be excited by hard driving, 
abuse, loud talking, or unnecessary disturbance ; do not ex- 
pose them to cold or storms. 

16. Do not change the feed suddenly. 

17. Feed liberally, and use only fresh, palatable feed- 
stuffs ; in no case should decomposed or moldy material be 
used. 

i8. Provide water in abundance, easy of access, and 
always pure ; fresh, but not too cold. 

19. Salt should always be accessible. 

20. Do not allow any strong-flavored food, like garlic, 
cabbage, and turnips, to be eaten, except immediately after 
milking. 

21. Clean the entire body of the cow daily. If hair in the 
region of the udder is not easily kept clean it should be 
clipped. 

22. Do not use the milk within twenty days before calv- 
ing, nor for three to five days afterwards. 

Milking. — 23. The milker should be clean in all respects; 
he should not use tobacco ; he should wash and dry his 
hands just before milking. 



246 DAIRYING. 

24. The milker should wear a clean outer garment, used 
only when milking, and kept in a clean place at other 
times. 

25. Brush the udder and surrounding parts just before 
milking, and wipe them with a clean, damp cloth or sponge. 

26. Milk quietly, qtiickly, cleanly, and thoroughly. Cows 
do not like unnecessary noise or delay. Commence milking 
at exactly the same hour every morning and evening, and 
milk the cows in the same order. 

27. Throw away (but not on the floor, better in the gut- 
ter) the first few streams from each teat ; this milk is very 
watery and of little value, but it may injure the rest. 

28. If in any milking a part of the milk is bloody, 
stringy or unnatural in appearance, the whole mess should 
be rejected. 

29. Milk with dry hands; never allow the hands to come 
in contact with the milk. 

30. Do not allow dogs, cats, or loafers to be around at 
-milking-time. 

31. If any accident occurs by which a pail full or partly 
full of milk becomes dirty, do not try to remedy this by 
straining, but reject all this milk and rinse the pail. 

32. Weigh and record the milk given by each cow, and 
take a sample morning and night, at least once a week, for 
testing by the fat test. 

Care of Milk. — 33. Remove the milk of every cow at once 
from the stable to a clean, dry room, where the air is pure 
and sweet. Do not allow cans to remain in stables while 
they are being filled. 

34. Strain the milk through a metal gauze and a flannel 
cloth or layer of cotton as soon as it is drawn. 

35. Aerate and cool the milk as soon as strained. If an 
apparatus for airing and cooling at the same time is not.at 
hand, the milk should be aired first. This must be done in 
pure air, and it should then be cooled to 45 degrees if the 
milk is for shipment, or to 60 degrees if for home use or 
delivery to a factory. 

36. Never close a can containing warm milk which has 
not been aerated. 



DAIRY COWS. 247 

37. If cover is left off the can, a piece of cloth or mosquito- 
netting should be used to keep out insects. 

38. If milk is stored, it should be held in tanks of fresh, 
cold water (renewed daily), in a clean, dry, cold room. 
Unless it is desired to remove cream, it should be stirred 
with a tin stirrer often enough to prevent forming a thick 
cream layer. 

39. Keep the night milk under shelter so rain cannot get 
into the cans. In warm weather hold it in a tank of fresh 
cold water. 

40. Never mix fresh warm milk with that which has been 
cooled. 

41. Do not allow the milk to freeze. 

42. Under no circumstances should anything be added to 
milk to prevent its souring. Cleanliness and cold are the 
only preventives needed. 

43. All milk should be in good condition when delivered. 
This may make it necessary to deliver twice a day during 
the hottest weather. 

44. When cans are hauled far they should be full, and 
carried in a spring wagon. 

45. In hot weather cover the cans, when moved in a 
wagon, with a clean wet blanket or canvas. 

The Utensils. — 46. Milk-utensils for farm use should be 
made of metal and have all joints smoothly soldered. 
Never allow them to become rusty or rough inside. 

47. Do not haul waste products back to the farm in the 
same cans used for delivering milk. When this is unavoid- 
able, insist that the skim-milk or whey-tank be kept clean. 

48. Cans used for the return of skim-milk or whey should 
be emptied and cleaned as soon as they arrive at the farm, 

49. Clean all dairy utensils by first thoroughly rinsing 
them in warm water; then clean inside and out with a brush 
and hot water in which a cleaning material is dissolved; 
then rinse and lastly sterilize by boiling water or steam. 
Use pure water only. 

50. After cleaning, keep utensils, inverted, in pure air, 
and sun if possible, until wanted for use. 



:48 



DAIRYING. 



II. MILK. 

PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION OF VARIOUS KINDS 
OF MILK. (KoNiG.) 



Human 

Mare 

Buffalo 

Ass 

Cow' 

.^.we 

Goat 

Reindeer* 

Sow '..... 

Bitch 

El 'phant 

Hippopotamu 

Camel 

Ll.ima 



No of 






Casein 


Milk . 
Sugar. ^ 




Analy- 
ses. 


Water. 


Fat. 


and Al- 
bumen. 


LSh. 


107 


87.41 


,78 


2,29 


6.21 


31 


50 


90.78 


1 .21 


1.99 


5.67 


35 


8 


82.25 


7.51 


5-05 


4.44 


75 


7 


89.64 


1.64 


2.22 


5-99 


51 


793 


87.17 


3-69 


3-55 


4.88 


71 


32 


80.82 


6.86 


6.52 


4.91 


89 


38 


85.71 


4.78 


4.29 


4.46 


76 


2 


67.20 


17.10 


"•39 


2.82 I 


49 


20 


82. sr 


5 78 


6.^4 


4.37 1 


00 


28 


7S.44 


9 57 


II. 17 


3-09 


73 


3 


79.3^^ 


9. 10 


2.51 


8.59 


50 




90.43 


4-5' 




4.40 


II 


3 


86.57 


3.07 


4.00 


^•59 


77 


3 


86 55 


3.15 


3-90 


5.60 


80 



Specific 
Grav- 
ity. 



0270 
0347 
0330 
0345 
0316 

0341 
0328 

ot77 
0385 
035 
03 '3 

042 

'>34 



* Werenskiold. 

AVERAGE ANALYSES OF AMERICAN SAMPIaES 
OF DAIRY PROI>UCTS. (Goessmann.) 





Whole 
Milk. 


Skim- 

milk. 


Butter- 
milk. 


Cream 

from 

Cooley 

Creamer. 


Butter. 


No. of samples 


1889 


348 


3. 


197 


25 


Water 


86.53 
4.14 

5.43* 
.70 


90.52 

■32 

3.53^ 

4-83* 

.80 


91.67 
.27 

2-79^ 

4-47=^ 

.80 


73-90 
17.00 

'"62 


10.89 

83 95 

.42* 


Fat 


Ca.sein and albumen.. 
Milk-sugar 


Ash 


4-74 




100.00 


1 .0.00 


100.00 




100.00 


Total solids 


13 47 
9-33 


9.48 

9. 16 


8.33 
8.06 


26.10 
8.44 


89.11 
5.16 


Solids no: fat 



By difference. 



MILK. 



249 



AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF COWS' MILK, WITH 
VARIATIONS. (KoNiG.) 





Average of 
705 Analyses 
(largely Euro- 
pean). 


Minimum. 


Maximum. 


Water 


87 . 27 per cent 
3.68 " " 

4.94 per cent 
.72 " 


80 . 3 2 per cent 
1.48 " " 

^;79^2.o7p.c. 
3. 23 per cent 

• 50 


90 . 22 i)er cent 


Fat . . . 


6.47 " 


Casein 

Albumen 

Milk-sugar 

Ash 


6 . 48 per cent 
1-45 " 






Total solids. . . . 

SnliH<; not i^f 


100 .00 

12. 73 per cent 
9.14 
I -0313 


9.31 per cent 


19.68 per cent 


Specific gravity. 


1 .0264 


1.0368 



COMPOSITION OF MORNING AND EVENING MILK, 
AND OF MORNING, NOON, AND EVENING 3IILK. 

(KONIG.) 





No. of 
Analy- 
ses. 


Water. 


Fat. 


Casein 
and Al- 
bumens 


Milk- 
sugar. 


Ash. 


Morning milk 

Evening " 


139 
139 


87.70 
87.29 


3.38 
3-58 


3.61 
3.64 


4.64 
4.81 


.67 
.69 


Morning milk 

Noon " 

Evening " 


52 
52 
52 


88.28 
87 • 43 
87.60 


3-05 
3.81 
3-59 


3-24 
3.26 
3- 20 


4-69 
4-75 
4.87 


•74 
■75 
• 74 



COMPOSITION OF DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE 
SAME MILKINGS. (Konig.) 



No. 






of An- 


Water. 


Fat. 


alyses. 








Per ct. 


Perct. 


7 


89.84 


1.78 


7 


88.13 


3-34 


6 


86.29 


4-52 



Casein 
and 


Miik- 


Ash. 


Albumen. 






Per ct. 


Per ct. 


P'rct. 


2.88 


4.81 


.69 


2.94 


4.92 


.68 


2-59 


5.88 


•72 



Total 
Solids. 



First portion. 
Second " 
Third " 



Per ct. 

ID. 16 

11.88 
13-7' 



250 



DAIRYING. 



CALiCULiATION OF COMPONENTS OP COWS' 
MILK. 

According to Vieth the components of the non-fatty milk 
solids will stand in the ratio to one another of about 



lo 



2 

ash. 



13 
for casein and albumen : milk sugar 

If the solids not fat in a sample of milk are 9 per cent, 
the per cent of casein and albumen in the same will be 
approximately ^% X 10 = 3.60 per cent; sugar, /g X 13 = 4-68 
per cent; and ash, ^^ X 2 = .72 per cent. 

TABLE SHOWING RELATION OF FAT TO CASEIN 
AND OTHER SOLIDS. (Cooke.) 



Total Solids. 


Fat. 


Casein and 
Albumen. 


Milk-sugar 
and Ash. 


Solids 
not Fat. 


Per Cent. 


Per Cent. 


Per Cent. 


Per Cent. 


Per Cent. 


11.00 


3-07 


2.92 


5-OI 


7-93 


11.50 


3-29 


3-00 


5-21 


8.21 


12.00 


3-50 


3-07 


5-43 


8.50 


12.50 


3-75 


3-19 


5.56 


8.75 


13.00 


3-99 


3-30 


571 


g.oi 


13-50 


"^■li 


3.44 


5-72 


9.16 


14.00 


4.68 


3-57 


5-75 


932 


14.50 


4-93 


3-79 


5.68 


9-47 


15.00 


5.38 


4.00 


5-62 


9.62 


15.50 


5.69 


4-15 


5.66 


9.81 


16.00 


6.00 


430 


5.70 


10.00 



This table, which is summarized from the analyses of 
about 2400 American samples of milk, shows that while the 
percentage of fat varies from 3.07 to 6 per cent, or nearly 
three per cent, that of casein varies only from 2.92 to 4.3^ 
per cent, less than one and one half per cent. It also 
shows that a higher percentage of fat is always accom- 
panied by a higher percentage of casein. Milk sugar and 
ash increase but little as the milk grows richer. 



MILK. 



251 



FERTILIZING INGREDIENTS IN DAIRY PROD- 
UCTS. 



Average 


of American Analyses. (Cooke and Hills.) 




Nitrogen. 


Phosphoric 
Acid. 


Potash. 


Value per 
Ton. 


Whole milk 

Skim-milk 

Cream 

Buttermilk 

Whey 


'53% 
•56 
.40 
.48 
.15 
.12 
3-93 


.19^ 
.20 
•15 
•17 
• 14 

.60 


.175^ 

.185 

.130 

.158 

.181 

.036 

.120 


S2.17 

2.31 

.66 

1.98 

.84 

•49 

14.19 




Cheese 





COMPOSITION OF COLOSTRUM. (Konig.) 





No. of 
Anal- 
yses. 


Water. 


Casein. 


Albu- 
men. 


Butter- 
fat. ^ 


Milk- 
sugar. 


Ash. 


Ewe.. 

Goat 

Sow 

Cow 


II 

I 

42 


77-9 
64.1 
70.1 
74.6 


4-9 

5-2 

7.6 
4.0 


3-4 

3-2 

8.0 
13-6 


8.3 
245 

3-6 


4.6 

3-9 
2.7 


.9 

3-0 



C03IP0SITI0N OF ASH OF COWS' MILK AND 
COLOSTRUM. 

Cows' Milk. 

Total ash 7 per cent 

100 parts of ash will contain : 

Potash 24 

Soda 6 

Lime 23 " 35 

Phosphoric acid 28 " 41 

Chlorin 13 '* 13 



Colostrum- 
1.6 per cent 



252 DAIRYING. 

A CHAPTER ON MILK TESTING.* 

The Babcock milk test is the quick and simple method 
of determining the fat content of milk which has been 
most generally adopted in this country. The test was in- 
vented by Dr. S. M. Babcock, of Wisconsin Agricultural 
Experiment Station, and was first published in July, i8go. 
The following is an outline of the method: 

A known quantity of milk (17.6 cubic centimeters, or 
about I of an ounce) is pipetted off into a graduated test- 
bottle; 17 5 cc. of commercial sulfuric acid, of a specific 
gravity of 1.82 to 1.83, is then measured out by means of 
a graduated cylinder or an automatic pipette, and added to 
the milk. The two fluids are mixed, and when the curd is 
dissolved, the test-bottles are placed in a centrifugal ma- 
chine and whirled for 4 minutes at a rate of 800-1200 revo- 
lutions per minute, the small hand-machines on the market 
requiring the higher number of revolutions. Boiling hot 
water is then filled into the bottles, by which means the 
liquid fat is brought into the narrow graduated neck of the 
bottles ; after an additional whirling of the bottles for a 
minute, the length of the column of fat is read off in per 
cent. 

The whole process of testing a sample of milk according 
to this method will take less than a quarter of an hour 
when a little skill in manipulation has been reached. 

The various dealers in dairy implements have placed 
Babcock machines on the maiket in sizes fiom 4- to 60- 
bottle machines, and supply the necessary outfit, as test- 
bottles, pipettes, graduates, and sulfuric acid. There are 
at present three different types of machines: hand-machines 
(friction or cog-wheel machines; the latter ones are to be 
preferred, and have now practically replaced the friction 
machines), steam turbine, and belt-power machines. The 
Facile, Twentieth Century, and Agos Babcock testers are 

* The subject of milk testing is treated exhaustively, and detailed direc- 
tions for using the Babcock test are given in Farrington-Woll, Testing 
Milk and its Products, Mendota Book Co., Madison, Wis., i8th Edition, 
1908. 



MILK. 253 

the best hand-machines on the market at the present time. 
Steam turbine machines are to be recommended for factory 
use; they should always be provided with a speed indicator 
so as to, avoid too slow or too rapid whirling; several acci- 
dents have happened where the bottles were unable to 
stand the pressure caused by too rapid whirling. In many 
turbine testers the bottles are heated to about 200° F., and 
the bottles should in case of such machines be left to cool 
to about 150° F, before results are read off. Readings 
taken at temperatures higher than this come too high, viz., 
in extreme cases, from .2 to .3 per cent too high in case of 
new milk, and toward one per cent too high in case of 
cream. (See Wis. Exp. Sta. Report for 1889-1900.) 

In Sharpies' Russian Babcock Tester (a steam-turbine test 
manufactured by the Dairy Specialty Co., West Chester, Pa.) the 
bottles used can be filled with hot water while the machine is 
in motion ; the test bottles used are arranged for half the 
usual quantity of milk. 

Points to be watched in making tests by the Babcock 
method : 

The strength of the acid used is very important; its 
specific gravity should not go below 1.82 or above 1.84 ; if 
the acid is somewhat too^ strong less may be taken, and a 
little more if it is rather weak. It is, however, not possible 
to make a satisfactory test with acid of a specific gravity 
below 1.82. Keep the acid bottle corked when not in use, 
as the acid will otherwise take up moisture from the air. 

In testing separator skim-milk use a somewhat larger 
quantity of acid than usual, and whirl 5 to 6 minutes; this 
will insure a nearly perfect separation of all the fat present 
in such milks. The two-necked so-called Ohlsson bottles 
are recommended for testing separator skim-milk ; the 
results should be increased by .05 per cent with these as 
with other test bottles, in testing separator skim-milk. 

The centrifugal machine should run at a rate of about 
800 to 1000 revolutions per minute; if its diameter is small, 
whirl 1000 or 1200. 

Soft or rain-water is used in filling up the bottle after 



254 DAIKYING. 

boiling, or hard water may be used if some drops of sulfuric 
acid have been added to it before the boiling. 

In adding the acid the bottle should be held at an angle, 
so as to cause the acid to follow the inside of the wall. Mix 
the milk and acid at once, or within a short time, and pro- 
ceed with the test without delay. 

Read off results before the fat begins to crystallize If 
many tests are made at a time, and the room is cold, place 
the bottles in a pail with water of 140-150° and keep them warm 
until results are recorded. 

Application of Babcock's Test. — The method may be used 
to advantage in determining the fat content of full milk, 
skim-milk, buttermilk, whey, cream, condensed milk, and 
cheese. It cannot be recommended for the estimation of 
fat in butter, since the error of analysis in this case is too 
large. In testing separator skim-milk, buttermilk, and whey 
by this method, no reading should be taken lower than one- 
tenth of one per cent. If only a small drop or two of liquid 
fat appears in the neck of the bottles after finished whirling 
the result is therefore to be put down as .1 per cent, instead 
of estimates of .05, and still lower, which are sometimes 
made. (See Bull. No. 52, Wis. Experiment Station.) 

Lactometer, — The Quevenne lactometer, with the ther- 
mometer tube extending into the narrow stem of the instru- 
ment, is recommended for dairy work. In the N. Y. Board 
of Health lactometer, often used, the scale is divided into 
I2» divisions, the mark 100 corresponding to a specific 
gravity of 1.029, and that of 120 to a specific gravity of 
1.0348. These lactometer degrees can be converted into 
Quevenne lactometer degrees by multiplying by .29. The 
following table gives the readings of the two scales be- 
tween 60 and 120 on the Board of Health lactometer: 



MILK. 



yo'o 



TABLE SHOWING THE QUEV ENNE LACTOMETER 
DEGREES CORRESPOXniNG TO THE SCAliE OF 
LACTOMETERS GRADUATE] D EROM 60 TO VJO. 



N. Y. Bd. 

of Health 

Scale. 


Quevenne 
Scale. 


N. Y. Bd. 

of Health 

Scale. 


Quevenne 
Scale. 


N. Y Bd. 
of Health 

Scale, 


Que\ enn 
Scale. 


60 


17.4 


81 


23 5 


lot 


29 3 


61 


17-7 


82 


23 


8 


102 


29.6 


62 


18 


83 


24 


I 


103 


29.9 


63 


18 3 


84 


24 


4 


104 


30.2 


64 


i3.6 


8s 


24 


6 


105 


30.5 


65 


18.8 


86 


24 


9 


lot) 


30-7 


66 


IQ.I 


87 


25 


2 


T07 


31 


67 


19.4 


88 


25 


5 


108 


31-3 


68 


19. 7 


89 


2S 




109 


^1.6 


69 


20 


90 


26 


I 


no 


31-9 


70 


29-3 


91 


26 


4 


III 


32.2 


71 


20.6 


92 


26 7 


112 


32 ^ 


72 


20.9 


93 


27 


113 


32.8 


73 


21.2 


94 


27 3 


114 


33-1 


74 


21.5 


95 


27.6 


-■5 


33 4 


75 


21.7 


96 


27 8 


116 


.33.6 


76 


22 


97 


28. T 


117 


33 9 


77 


22.3 


98 


28.4 


118 


34-2 


78 


22.6 


99 


28.7 


119 


34-5 


79 


22.9 


100 


29 


120 


34-8 


80 


23.2 













In taking the specific gravity of milk by means of a lac- 
tometer, the temperature of the milk should not vary more 
than 10° either way from 60' F. The following tables 
show the proper corrections for temperature to be made, if 
the milk was either warmer or colder than 60° F., the tem- 
perature to which the specific g:ravities of all liquids are 
usually referred. 

In practical work sufficiently accurate corrections for tem- 
perature may generally be made by adding .1 to the lacto- 
meter reading for each degreeabove 60 F. , and by subtract- 
ing .1 for each degree below 60°; e.g., if the reading at 64° 
is 29.5, it will be about 29.5 -f .4 = 29.9 at 60'; if 34.0 at 52°, 
it will be about 34.0 — .8 = 33.2 at 6o^ By reference to the 
following table we find it is more correctly 33.0. 



25G 



DAIRYINQ. 



a 

V 

fcX) 

Q 

c 

i 

4) 

P 

ci3 

§. 

a 

H 


S 


a 

d ".^ N rn 4- 

N (N « N N 




inNO 1^00 6- 


q 
d « Pi ro 4- 
rri n ro en ri 


q 


S 


o> ONO a- o. 

ON d « (N ro 


0\ ON On On O^ 


C ON O- ON ON 
PI m ". M ro 


ON 


00 

ir. 


ON O- ONOO 00 


00 00 00 «0 00 


00 00 ;- t~. t- 


t^ 


H^gSSS' 


-r inND t^oo 

N IN M IN IN 


On - PI fl 
N -n romrr 


1/1 


00 OO CO 00 1-^ 


t^ r.~ t^ t^ r^ 


t^NONO VCNO 


NO 


ON ■- M ro 
M N N N N 


JTJT^^^ 


^^^^^ 


VO 


t~> t^ t^ t-»NO 


NO NO NO NO NO 
4- lONO t^OO 


NO in in lo in 

ON -^N rn 
p) m m fo m 


•? 


io 


NO NO NO NO NO 


NO in ir, u^ ,r, 
^ inNO t^oo 

IN IN CJ N M 


'J- -«- 'I- T^ ro 

N m m Jn S^ 


^ 


;?; 


IT) U-) u^ in in 


in ^ -*-^ ^ 


m ro m m P) 


Pi 
4- 


ONQ « (N ro 

M M N M (N 


^ inNO t^oo 
IN IN f) N w 


?^^^^^ 


:;? 


■* ■* -^ -* 'l- 


Tf ro ro m ro 


P) p. Pi » H 





ON - N rf) 


-r inNO t~«oo 
N « IN M N 


•^?,P,^S 


s, 


Tt (D rn ro (n 


I-'. N P) N « 


►- M M 


ON 


ON " o <n 

M <N <N N N 


TT lONO t^OO 
f) IN Pi N N 


ON w P) m 
N m m m f-. 


ro 


^ 




P) P) N H w 


M On ON 


00 


O- M « ro 


Tf inNO r^oo 


ON w - Pi 
Pi m ro m ro 


m 





ON d "' pi ro 


M « M 


On O-OO t^ 


NO 


-1- inNO i^oo 


'?:^^rn?n 


o^ 


N N N N W 


►- W M 


o-oo r-NO in 


^ 


^ 


S^g^S^^' 


On ON 

T^ lONo NO f.. 

P4 PI PI W P) 


00 t^No in T^ 


-4- 


rv 


M 

ON " M -o 

M (N CN (N CH 


>3N O-CO 00 

T(- -^ ino t^ 

PI PI p< N PI 


t~.NO in ^ ro 


^ 




ON 

6\ 6 - 1^ c-i 


On On ONOO 00 


t~.No in Tf m 


ro 


■<^ 


ON ON O^ ON 


oooo 00 r- r^ 


NO m '^ ro P) 


q 
m 


On ON O M N 
M « <N N N 


m .^ inNO i-^ 


OO ON 1- Pi 

Pi Pi m m rn 


a; 

1 




- <N m T^ 

IN IN K (N « 


■J-INO t~-00 On 


1- P) 1^ ■*■ 
fn m ro m m 


rn 



MILK. 



257 




O 

s 

O 



«VO f^t.^ cooo Osoo M M c Nrr, „ 

-Sfr^J? ^jT^g^^ iT^^iJ-i f^ 

.oir,^^^ vOt-rs.ooos oOOmm t, 

?:?j?r^j? ^fT'ss^^ fj>fsi;s^ ^ 

T^tT"? ^^^t-r^ OOOOONOVO O 

SSfT^J? ^^^S^^ ?^?J>fJ!S^ p; 

c^romrorr, ^^^^^ vooKtvoo CO 

"(NMMro rororororo 7^ 

"NNNN MrorOTf^ .omvo^OVO t^ 

nS^^J? 'gST'Sg^Po ^"■^-i-'A vd 

OwMWM MP)M(Nro ro^^u^u^ ^ 

?^sir?y ^^^°-° ?^^?i^;^ ^ 

°S??n5? "S^^S^O «N<^4u:> vd 

^•ooooooc3> OOOOm mmnnn n 

S^s??^ 'si:^ii ii^^^ i 



■f;-t^ tvcoooooo a>c>ooo 
?? N JJ^^ ^°° «^ 6 w (^ 4 u^ 






00 OO O OS o 

O M 0) rn 4- 
m m ro r<-) n 



>0\D ^0 VO so 
w-)SO t^oo cj> 



■ t~^ t~.00 00 

<^ ro ro ro 



ro^^M-^ ^^^^^ ^^^^^ 

S N S ^ ^ J^"? ^°° <^ 6 " M f^ 4 

CT CN ,^) (N (N r<~, rri ro m ro 



N no (v^ I 

d M N , 



ro ro ^*- ^ ^ 
<ovo r~,oo OS 






4> w tai 
o 

o ^ « 



c — ' 



& t; j« 



o O o 

« "^ .2 

u U u 

3 « "^ 

6 - i! b£ 



V F 



if 



.S s„ ti« «^ 

'. 3 ■" O 

2 u ?f , • 

^ B b£o 

*- & o 

<t; o M 

O k, n 



258 DAIRYING. 



CALiCULiATION OF TOTAL SOLIDS OF MILK. 

The relation existing between the various components of 
the milk is such as to make possible the calculation of the 
percentage of solids not fat, and total solids, in a sample of 
milk when the fat-content and the specific gravity (lactom- 
eter reading) of the milk are known. Several formulas 
have been worked out by chemists in different parts of the 
world, by the application of which the total solids may be 
calculated from the percentage of fat and the specific grav- 
ity of the milk. We give here Babcock's formula, pub- 
lished in the twelfth report of Wisconsin Experiment 
Station. 

Solids not fat = I ^ — U — \ ^ . ^^ _ f\ 2.c 

\ioo — I.0753jr/ / ^ J ) ^' 

where s — specific gravity of the milk and /per cent of fat 

found When s and /are known the per cent of solids not 

fat in the milk may be calculated by means of this formula. 

In order to avoid making the lengthy calculations in every 

case, tables for solids not fat are given on the following 

pages; results obtained by the formula given above, or 

by means of the following tables, will come within a couple 

of tenths from the actual percentages present, when 

reasonable care is taken in the determinations of fat and 

specific gravity (or lactometer reading). 

Sho7't formulas. The following formulas for solids not 

fat and for total solids are derived from the data given in 

the following tables. L = lactometer reading at 60° F. 

(specific gravity X 1000— 1000); /= per cent of fat in 

milk. 

Solids not fat = - + .2/ 
4 

Total solids = \- 1.2/. 

4 



MILK. 259 

Rule : To find pei' cent of solids not fat, add two tenths of 
the per cent of fat to one fourth of the lactometer reading. 

To find per cent of total solids y add one and two tenths timei 
the per cent of fat to one fourth of the lactotneter reading. 

Results obtained by using the short formulas will agree 
very closely with those derived from the general formula, 
or from the tables published below, and may be safely 
relied upon in practical work. 

The tables cover a range of .o to 6.0 per cent of fat, 
and from 26 to 36 lactometer reading. If intermediate 
values for f and L are at hand., corrections in the per cent 
of solids not fat found may easily be made, with .02 per 
cent for every tenth of one per cent of fat, and .25 per 
cent for every lactometer degree. Example: Given / = 
3.67 per cent and L = 32.5. By referring to the table we 
find that /" = 3.6 and Z = 32 will give 8.73 per cent of 
solids not fat; correction for fat-conient, .01 per cent (3.67 
being nearer 3.65 than 3.70), and for lactometer reading 
12 per cent; corrected per cent solids not fat, 8.86. 



260 



DAIRYING. 



TABLE SHOWING PER CENT OF SOLIDS NOT PAT, 

Corresponding to Quevenne Lactometer Readings and 

Per Cent of Fat. (Babcock.) 



Per 






Lactometer Readings at 60° Fahr. 




1 


Ct.of 
















1 
























Fat. 


























26 


27 


28 


29 


30 


31 


32 


33 


_1^_ 


35 


36 


.0 


6 50 


6.75 


7.00 


7-25 


7-50 


7-75 


8.00 


"8^25 


8.50 


8.75 


9.00 


.1 


6.52 


6.77 


7.02 


7.27 


7-52 


7-77 


8.02 


8.27 


8.52 


8.77 


9.02 


.2 


6.54 


6.79 


7.04 


7.29 


7-54 


7-79 


8.04 


8 29 


8.54 


8.79 


9.04 


•3 


6 56 


6. 81 


7.06 


7-31 


7.56 


7.81 


8.06 


8.31 


8.56 


8 81 


9.06 


•4 


6.58 


6.83 


7.08 


7.33 


7-58 


7.83 


8.08 


833 


8.58 


8.83 


9.08 


.5 


6.60 


6.85 


7.10 


7-35 


7.60 


7.85 


8.10 


8 35 


8.60 


8.85 


9.10 


.6 


6.62 


6.87 


7.12 


7 37 


7.62 


7.87 


8.12 


8.37 


8.62 


8.87 


9.12 


•7 


6.64 


6.89 


7-14 


7-39 


7.64 


7.89 


8.14 


8 39 


8.64 


889 


9 ■'4 


.8 


6.66 


6 91 


7.16 


7.41 


7.66 


7.91 


8.16 


8.4T 


8.66 


8.91 


9.16 


•9 


6.68 


6.93 


7.18 


7-43 


7.68 


7.93 


8.18 


8.43 


8.68 


8.93 


9.18 


I.O 


6.70 


6.95 


7.20 


7-45 


7.70 


7-95 


8.20 


8.45 


8.70 


8-95 


9.20 


i.i 


6.72 


6.97 


7.22 


7-47 


7.72 


7-97 


8.22 


8.47 


8.72 


8.97 


9.22 


1.2 


6.74 


6.99 


7.24 


7-49 


7-74 


7.99 


8.24 


8.49 


8.74 


8.99 


9.24 


1-3 


6.76 


7.01 


7.26 


7-51 


7.76 


8.01 


8.26 


8.51 


8.76 


9.01 


9.26 


14 


6.78 


7-03 


7.28 


7-53 


7.78 


8.03 


8.28 


8 53 


8.78 


9.03 


9.28 


1-5 


6.80 


705 


730 


7-55 


7.80 


8.05 


8 30 


8.55 


8 80 


905 


9-30 


1 .6 


6.82 


7.07 


7-32 


7-57 


7.82 


8 07 


8.32 


8.57 


8.82 


9.07 


9 32 


1-7 


6.84 


7.09 


7 34 


7-59 


7.84 


8.09 


8.34 


8.S9 


8.84 


9 09 


9-34 


1.8 


6.86 


7.11 


7.36 


7.61 


7 86 


8. II 


8.36 


8.61 


8.86 


9.11 


9-37 


1.9 


6.88 


7.13 


7.38 


7-63 


7.88 


8.13 


8.38 


8.63 


8.88 


9 14 


9-39 


2.0 


6.90 


7-15 


7.40 


7-65 


7.90 


8.15 


8.40 


8.66 


8. 91 


9 16 


9.41 


2.1 


6.92 


7.17 


7.42 


7.67 


7.92 


8.17 


8.42 


8.68 


8.03 


9.18 


9-43 


2.2 


6.94 


7.19 


7-44 


7.69 


7-94 


8.T9 


8.44 


8.70 


8.95 


9.20 


9-45 


2-3 


6.96 


7.21 


7.46 


7.71 


7.96 


8.21 


8.46 


8.72 


8.97 


9.22 


9.47 


2.4 


6 98 


7-23 


7.48 


7-73 


7 98 


8.23 


8.48 


8.74 


8.99 


9.24 


9.49 


2-5 


7.00 


7 25 


7-5° 


7-75 


8.00 


8.25 


8.50 


8.76 


9.01 


9 26 


9-5' 


2.6 


7.02 


7.27 


7-52 


7 77 


8.02 


8.27 


852 


8.78 


9-03 


9.28 


9 53 


2.7 


7.04 


7.29 


7-54 


7-79 


8.04 


8.29 


8.54 


8.80 


905 


9 30 


9-55 


2.8 


7.06 


731 


7.56 


7.8t 


8.06 


8.31 


8.57 


8.82 


9 07 


9 32 


9-57 


2.9 


7.08 


7-33 


7-58 


783 


8.08 


8.33 


8.59 


8.84 


9.09 


9-34 


9-59 


3-0 


7.10 


7-35 


7.60 


7.85 


8.10 


8.36 


8.61 


8,86 


9. II 


9 3^^ 


9.61 


3-1 


7.12 


7-37 


7.62 


7.87 


8. 13 


8.38 


8.63 


8.88 


9 13 


9.38 


9.64 


3-2 


7-14 


7-39 


7.64 


7.89 


8.15 


8.40 


8 65 


8.90 


915 


9 41 


9.66 


3-3 


7.16 


7.41 


7.66 


7 92 


8.17 


8.42 


8.67 


.8.92 


9.18 


9-43 


9 68 


3 4 


7.18 


7-43 


7-69 


7-94 


8.19 


8.44 


8.69 


8,94 


9.20 


9-45 


9. 7c 


3-5 


7.20 


7-45 


7.71 


7.96 


8.21 


8.46 


8.71 


8.96 


9.22 


9-47 


9.72 


3.6 


7.22 


7.48 


7-73 


7.98 


8.23 


8.48 


8.73 


8.98 


9.24 


9.49 


9-74 


3-7 


7.24 


7-50 


7 75 


8.00 


8.25 


8 50 


8.75 


9.00 


9.26 


9 51 


9.76 


3-8 


7.26 


7 52 


7-77 


8.02 


8.27 


8.52 


8.77 


9.02 


9.28 


9-53 


9-78 


3-9 


7.28 


7-54 


7-79 


8.04 


8.29 


8.54 


8.79 


9.04 


9-3° 


9-55 


9.80 


4.0 


7 30 


7.56 


7.81 


8.06 


8.31 


8.56 


8.81 


9 06 


9-32 


9-57 


9.87 


4.1 


7-32 


7-58 


7 83 


8.08 


8.33 


8.58 


8.83 


9.09 


9-34 


9-59 


9.85 


4.2 


7 34 


7.60 


7.85 


8.10 


8.35 


8 60 


8.85 


9.11 


9 36 


9.62 


9.87 


4-3 


7-36 


7.62 


7.87 


8.12 


8.37 


8.62' 


8.88 


9-13 


9-38 


9.64 


9.89 


4 4 , 


7.38 


7-64 


789 


8.14 


8.39 


8.64 


8.90 


9-15 


9.40 


9.66 


9.91 



Per 

Ct. ot 

Fat. 



MILK. 



261 



TABLE FOR SOLIDS NOT FAT— (Coni/nued). 



Per 




Lactometer Re 


adings at 60° Fahr. 




Per 


Ct. of 










, 














Ct. of 


Fat. 


26 


27 


28 


29 
8.16 


30 
8.41' 


31 
8.66 


32 
8.92 


33 
9.17 


34 
9.42 


35 
9.68 


36 
9-93 


Fat. 


4-5 


7.40 


7.66 


7.Q' 


4 5 


4.6 


7-43 


7.68 


7-93 


8.i8 


8.43 


8.68 


8.94 


9.19 


9-44 


9.70 


9-95 


4.6 


4-7 


7-45 


7.70 


7-95 


8.20 


8.4.S 


8.70 


8.96 


9.21 


9.46 


9.72 


9-97 


4.7 


4.8 


7-47 


7.72 


7-97 


8.22 


8.47 


8.72 


8.98 


9-23 


9.48 


9-74 


9-99 


4.8- 


4.9 


7-49 


7-74 


7 99 


8.24 


8.49 


8.74 


9.00 


9-25 


9.50 


9.76 


10.01 


4-9 


r,.o 


7-51 


7.76 


8.01 


8.26 


8.51 


8.76 


9.02 


9.27 


9 •52 


9.78 


10.03 


5-0 


5-1 


7-53 


7-7« 


8.0s 


8.28 


8. S3 


8.79 


9-05 


9 29 


9-54 


9.80 


10.05 


5-1 


5-2 


7-S.S 


7.80 


8.0s 


8.,o 


8.55 


8.81 


9.06 


9.31 


9-56 


9.82 


10.07 


5-2 


5-3 


7-57 


7 82 


8.07 


<.T,2 


8.57 


8.83 


9 08 


9.3^ 


9.58 


9.84 


10.09 


5-3 


5-4 


7-59 


7.84 


8.C9 


8.34 


8.60 


8.85 


9.10 


9-36 


9.61 


9.86 


to. II 


5-4 


5-5 


7.fn 


7.86 


8.11 


8.:i6 


8.62 


8.87 


9.12 


9.^.8 


9-63 


9.88 


10. T3 


5.5 


5-6 


7 63 


7.88 


8. IS 


8.-,9 


8.64 


8.89 


9.1.S 


9.40 


9 -65 


9.90 


10. IS 


S.6 


5-7 


7.65 


7. go 


8. IS 


8.41 


8.66 


8.91 


9.17 


9.42 


9.67 


9.92 


10,17 


5-7 


5-8 


7.67 


7.92 


8. 17 


8.43 


8.68 


8 94 


9-19 


9.44 


9.69 


9-94 


10.19 


S.8 


5-9 


7.60 


7-94 


8.20 


8.45 


8.70 


8.96 


9.21 


9 46 


9.71 


9.96 


10 22 


5-9 


6.0 


7.71 


7.96 


8.22 


8.- 47 


8.72 


8 98 


9-23 


9.48 


9-73 


9 98 


10.24 


6.0 



Correction for Tenths of Lactof?ieter Readings, 



Difference. 




.25 


.26 


.1 


•03 


.03 




2 


•05 


.05 




3 


.08 


.08 




4 


.10 


.10 




5 


•13 


•»3 




6 


.15 


.16 




7 


.i8 


.18 




8 


.20 


.21 




9 


•23 


•23 



CALCULATION OF SP. GR. OF MILK SOLIDS. 

(Fleischmann.) 

t 



Sp. gr. of milk solids = 6* = 



loOf — 100 



where s = sp. gr. of milk, t = solids of milk. In pure 
whole milk Ovaries but little, viz., between 1.25 and 1.34. 
When S comes above 1.34, the milk is suspicious ; if above 
1.40, it has been skimmed (see page 313). 



262 



DAIRYIKG. 






:;fe? 






XiS-O 



cfl Oi y *^ "-^ 

i-^ h ^ 1^ 
^ " o " .. 









-^ ."5 

. (fl M (-; 



^ !^ S'o g a s 



o 












S fe 






gji 






C >« 



00 to in 



6" 



fO ^0 <N ro 



r^ ro (^ PO fO fO < 



ro fO ro r^ fO ro 



is -2 



-I 

m O 



" bcca o 






_^ l"r 03 g^.^s- 






Jw^s: 



s % 



0. C ^ 
o a) (u (u 



MILK. 



263 






^ 



O >r) g o "^ 



02 U3 S-i „ U <U (Jj 



-^ oS 

O w r^ 



^- 



bS - 

3 '"IS 
&-( en 



2 ^ 

.a 

i5 ^ 



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264 DAIRYING. 



GOVERNMENT STANDARDS OF PURITY FOR MILK 
AND ITS PRODUCTS.* 

A.— 3Iilks. 

1. Milk is the fresh, clean, lacteal secretion obtained by the 
complete milking of one or more healthy cows, properly fed and 
kept, excluding that obtained within fifteen days before and 
ten days after calving, and contains not less than eight and 
one-half (8.5) per cent of solids not fat, and not less than three 
and one-quarter (3.25) per cent of milk-fat. 

2. Blended milk is milk modified in its composition so as to 
have a definite and stated percentage of one or more of its con- 
stituents. 

3. Skim milk is milk from which a part or all of the cream has 
been removed, and contains not less than nine and one-quarter 
(9.25) per cent of milk solids. 

4. Pasteurized milk is milk that has been heated below boiling, 
but sufficiently to kill most of the active organisms present, and 
immediately cooled to 50° Fahr. or lower. 

5. Sterilized milk is milk that has been heated at the tempera- 
ture of boiling water or higher for a length of time sufficient to 
kill all organisms present. 

6. Condensed milk, evaporated milk, is milk from which ^a 
considerable portion of water has been evaporated, and contains 
not less than twenty-eight (28) per cent of milk solids, of which 
not less than twenty-seven and five-tenths (27.5) per cent is 
milk-fat. 

7. Sweetened condensed milk is milk from which a considerable 
portion of water has been evaporated and to which sugar (sucrose) 
has been added, and contains not less than twenty-eight (28) 
per cent of milk solids, of which not less than twenty-seven and 
five-tenths (27.5) per cent is milk-fat. 

8. Condensed skim milk is skim milk from which a considerable 
portion of water has been evaporated. 

9. Buttermilk is the product that remains when butter is re- 
moved from milk or cream in the process of churning. 

* Proclaimed by the Secretary of Agriculture, June 26 1906. (Circ 
No. 19, Office of the Secretary, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.) 



MILK. 265 

lo. Goat's milk, ewe's milk, et cetera, are the fresh, clean, 
lacteal secretions, free from colostrum, obtained by the complete 
milking of healthy animals other than cows, properly fed and 
kept, and conform in name to the species of animal from which 
they are obtained. 

B. — Cream. 

1. Cream is that portion of milk rich in milk-fat, which rises 
to the surface of milk on standing, or is separated from it by 
centrifugal force, is fresh and clean, and contains not less than 
eighteen (i8) per cent of milk-fat. 

2. Evaporated cream, clotted cream, is cream from which a con- 
siderable portion of water has been evaporated. 

C— Milk-Fat or Butter-Fat. 

I. Milk-fat, butter- fat, is the fat of milk and has a Reichert- 
Meissl number not less than twenty-four (24) and a specific 



gravity not less than 0.905 



/4oia\ 



-Butter. 



1. Butter is the clean, non-rancid product made by gathering 
in any manner the fat of fresh or ripened milk or cream into a 
mass, which also contains a small portion of the other milk con- 
stituents, with or without salt, and contains not less than eighty- 
two and five-tenths (82.5) per cent of milk-fat. By acts of 
Congress approved August 2, 1886, and May 9, 1902, butter 
may also contain added coloring-matter. 

2. Renovated butter, process butter, is the product made by 
melting butter and reworking, without the addition or use of 
chemicals or any substances except milk, cream, or salt, and 
contains not more than sixteen (16) per cent of water and at 
least eighty-two and five-tenths (82.5) per cent of milk-fat. 

E, — Cheese. 

I. Cheese is the sound, solid, and ripened product made from 
milk or cream by coagulating the casein thereof with rennet or 
lactic acid, with or without the addition of ripening ferments 



266 



DAIRYING. 



and seasoning, and contains, in the water-free substance, not 
less than fifty (50) per cent of milk-fat. By act of Congress, 
approved June 6, 1896, cheese may also contain added coloring- 
matter. 

2. Skim milk cheese is the sound, solid, and ripened product 
made from skim milk by coagulating the casein thereof with 
rennet or lactic acid, with or without the addition of ripening 
ferments and seasoning. 

3. Goat's milk cheese, ewe's milk cheese, et cetera, are the sound 
ripened products made from the milks of the animals specified 
by coagulating the casein thereof with rennet or lactic acid, 
with or without the addition of ripening ferments and season- 
ing. 

F. — Ice Creams. 

1. Ice cream is a frozen product made from cream and sugar, 
with or without a natural flavoring, and contains not less than 
fourteen (14) per cent of milk-fat. 

2. Fruit ice cream is a frozen product made from cream, 
sugar, and sound, clean, mature fruits, and contains not less than 
twelve (12) per cent of milk-fat. 

3. Nut ice cream is a frozen product made from cream, sugar, 
and sound, non-rancid nuts, and contains not less than twelve (12) 
per cent of milk-fat. 



G. — Miscellaneous Milk Products. 

1. Whey is the product remaining after the removal of fat and 
casein from milk in the process of cheese-making. 

2. Kumiss is the product made by the alcoholic fermentation 
of mare's or cow's milk. 



MILK. 267 

ADULTERATION OF MILKf 

The legal standards adopted in the different States of the 
Union determine the limits for fat or solids, below which 
the milk offered for sale must not fall. Where no control 
sample can be taken of a suspected sample of milk, calcula- 
tions of the extent of the adulteration practised are made 
on basis of the legal standard in each State. Whenever 
possible, a control sample should be secured on the prem- 
ises of the suspected party, and subjected to analysis. If 
the control sample contains appreciably less fat or solids 
not fat than did the suspected sample, the latter was 
skimmed or watered, or both skimmed and watered.* 

Skimming. — I. If a sample is skimmed, the following for- 
mula will give the number of pounds of fat abstracted from 
ICO lbs. of milk : 

Fat abstracted = x — legal standard for fat — /, . (I) 

/being the per cent of fat in the suspected sample. 

In this and following formulas the percentages found in 
the control samples, if such are at hand, are always to be 
substituted for the legal standards. 

II. The following formula will give the per ce.it of fat 

abstracted, calculated on the total quantity of fat originally 

found in the milk: 

/X loo 

.r = loo - . ^ — -— (II) 

leg. stand, for fat 

Watering. — I. If a sample is watered, the calculations 
are most conveniently based on the percentage of solids 
not fat in the milk: 

Per cent extraneous water in milk 

s X lOO .^^^^ 

= .r=IOO— :; — TT^ T— , . (Ill) 

leg. stand, for solids not fat 

s being ine per cent of solids not fat in the suspected 
sample. 

Example. — A sample contains 8.5 per cent of solids not 
fat ; if the legal standard for solids not fat be 9 per cent, 

100 '- = 5.6, will give the per cent of extraneous 

water in the suspected sample of milk. 

=>• See FarriHgton-Woil, Testing Milk and lis Products, i6th Ed., pp. 



2G8 DAIRYING. 

8.5 X 100 , .„ . , 

100 — = 5.6, will give the per cent of extraneous 

9 

water in the suspected sample of milk. 

II. Watering of milk may also be expressed in per cent 
0/ water added to the original milk, by formula IV : 

Per cent water added to original milk 

100 X leg. stand, for solids not fat ._,^. 

= X = ^^ — 100. (IV) 

s 

T ^ 1- 1 • i, 100 X 9 

In the example given above, — 100 = 5.9 per cent 

8-5 
of water was added to the original milk. 

Watering and Skimming. — If a sample has been both 
watered and skimmed, the extent of watering is ascertained 
by means of formula III ; and the fat abstracted found ac- 
cording to the following formula : 

Per cent fat abstracted 

J r r leg. stand, for solids not fat^. ._^. 
= jr=r leg. stand, for fat X./. (V) 

Example. — A sample of milk contains 2.4 per cent of fat 
and 8.1 per cent solids not fat; then 

8.1 X 100 

extraneous water in milk = 100 = 10 per cent: 

9 

fat abstracted = 3 — ^-^—^ = .33 per cent. 

o. I 

100 lbs. of the milk contained 10 lbs. of extraneous water 
and .33 lb. of fat had been skimmed from it.- 

RANGES OF THE VARIATIONS IN THE COM- 
POSITION OF HERD MILK. (Fleischmann.) 

The specific gravity (expressed in degrees) may go above 
or below the yearly average by more than 10 per cent. 

The per cent of fat may go above or below the yearly 
average by more than 30 per cent. 

The per cent of total solids may go above or below the 
yearly average by more than 14 per cent. 

The per cent of solids not fat may go above or below the 
yearly averaare by more than 10 per cent. 



I 



MILK. 



269 



TABIjE for converting quarts of MII.K 
INTO POUNDS. 



Qts. 


Lbs.- 


<jts. 


Lbs. 


Qts. 


Lbs. 


gts, 
85 


Lbs. 


I 


2.15 


29 


62.3 


57 


122.4 


182.5 


2 


4.3 


30 


64.4 


58 


124 


5 


86 


184.6 


3 


6.4 


31 


66.5 


59 


126 


6 


87 


186.8 


4 


8.6 


32 


68.7 


60 


128 


8 


83 


188 9 


5 


10.7 


33 


70.8 


61 


130 


9 


89 


191 


6 


12.9 


34 


73 -o 


62 


133 


I 


90 


193.2 


7 


15.0 


35 


75-1 


63 


135 


2 


91 


195-3 


8 


17.2 


36 


77-3 


64 


137 


4 


92 


197-5 


9 


^9-3 


37 


7Q-4 


65 


139 


5 


93 


199.6 


lO 


21.5 


38 


81.6 


66 


141 


7 


94 


201.8 


II 


23.6 


39 


83-7 


67 


143 


8 


95 


203.9 


12 


25.8 


40 


85-9 


68 


146 





96 


206.1 


13 


27.9 


41 


88.0 


69 


148 


I 


97 


208.2 


M 


30.1 


42 


90.2 


70 


150 


3 


98 


210.4 


15 


32.2 


43 


92.3 


71 


152 


4 


99 


212.5 


16 


34.3 


44 


94-5 


72 


154 


6 


100 


214.7 


17 


36.5 


45 


96.6 


73 


156 


7 


200 


429-3 


18 


38.6 


46 


98.7 


74 


158 


8 


300 


644.0 


19 


40.8 


47 


100.9 


75 


161 





400 


858.6 


20 


42.9 


48 


103.0 


•;6 


163 


I 


500 


1073-3 


21 


45-1 


49 


105.2 


77 


165 


3 


600 


:288 


22 


47.2 


50 


107.3 


78 


167 


4 


700 


1502.6 


23 


49.4 


51 


109.5 


79 


169 


6 


800 


1717-3 


24 


51-5 


52 


III. 6 


80 


171 


7 


90c 


1931 9 


25 


53-7 


53 


1138 


81 


^73 


9 


lOOQ 


2:46.6 


26 


55.8 


54 


"5-9 


82 


176 









27 


58.0 


55 


118. 1 


83 


178 


2 






28 


60.1 


56 


120.2 


84 


180 


3 







TABLE FOR CONVERTING POUNDS OF MILK 
INTO QUARTS. 



Lbs. 


Qts. 


Lbs. 


Qts. 


Lbs. 


Qts. 


Lbs. 


Qts. 


I 


.47 


29 


13-5 


57 


26.6 


85 


39-6 


2 


•93 


30 


14.0 


58 


27-0 


86 


40.1 


3 


1.40 


3t 


14.4 


59 


27-5 


87 


40.5 


4 


1.86 


32 


14.9 


60 


28.0 


88 


41.0 


5 


2-33 


33 


15-4 


61 


^ 28.4 


89 


41-5 


6 


2 80 


34 


15-8 


62 


28.9 


90 


41.9 


7 


3.26 


35 


16.3 


63 


29.4 


91 


42 4 


8 


3-73 


36 


16.8 


64 


29.8 


92 


42.9 


9 


4.19 


37 


17.2 


65 


30-3 


93 


43-3 


10 


4.66 


38 


17.7 


66 


30.8 


94 


43 8 


II 


5-13 


39 


18.2 


67 


31.2 


95 


44-3 


12 


5-59 


40 


18.6 


68 


3^-7 


96 


44-7 


13 


6.06 


41 


19. 1 


69 


32.2 


97 


45-2 


14 


6.52 


42 


19.6 


70 


32-6 


98 


45-7 


15 


6.99 


43 


20.0 


71 


33 I 


99 


46.1 


16 


7.46 


44 


20.5 


72 


33-6 


100 


46.6 


^l 


7.92 


45 


21 .0 


73 


34 


200 


93-2 


18 


8-39 


46 


21.4 


74 


34-5 


300 


139.8 


19 


8.85 


47 


21.9 


75 


35-0 


400 


186.4 


eu 


9 -.32 


48 


22 4 


76 


35 4 


500 


233.0 


21 


9-79 


49 


22.8 


77 


35-9 


600 


279.6 


22 


10.3 


50 


23-3 


78 


30-3 


700 


326 . 2 


23 


10.7 


51 


23.8 


79 


36.8 


800 


372.8 


24 


11.2 


52 


24.2 


80 


37-3 


900 


419.4 


25 


II. 7 


53 


24 7 


8t 


37-7 


1000 


466.0 


26 


12. 1 


54 


25.2 


82 


38.2 






27 


13.6 


55 


25.6 


83 


38-7 






28 


13. 1 


56 


26.1 


84 


39-1 







^69« 



DAIRYIKG. 



MILK PRICES BY MEASURES. 

(N. Y. Farmer.) 



Cents per 


Cents per 

40-qt. 

Can. 


Cents per 


Cents per 


Cents per 
40-qt. 
Can. 


Cents per 


Quart. 


1 00 Pounds. 


Quart. 


100 Pounds. 


I . lOO 


44 


51.162 


2-375 


95 


110.465 


1. 125 


45 


52.325 


2 . 400 


96 


111 .628 


1. 150 


46 


53.488 


2-425 


97 


112. 791 


1. 17s 


47 


54.651 


2.450 


98 


113.953 


1 . 200 


48 


55.813 


2-475 


99 


115.116 


I. 225 


49 


56. 976 


2.500 


100 


116. 279 


I .250 


50 


58. 189 


2.525 


101 


117.442 


I. 275 


51 


59.302 


2-S50 


102 


118.605 


1 .300 


52 


60 . 465 


2-575 


103 


119.767 


1.32s 


53 


61 . 627 


2 . 600 


104 


120.930 


1.350 


54 


62. 790 


2.625 


105 


122.093 


1.375 


55 


63.953 


2. 650 


106 


123.256 


1 .400 


56 


65.116 


2.675 


107 


124.419 


1.425 


57 


66. 279 


2.700 


108 


125.581 


1.450 


58 


67 .441 


2.725 


109 


126.744 


1.475 


59 


68. 604 


2.750 


110 


127.907 


1 .500 


60 


69.767 


2.775 


III 


129.070 


1.52s 


61 


70.930 


2 . 800 


112 


130.233 


1.550 


62 


72.093 


2.82s 


113 


131.39s 


1-575 


63 


73- 255 


2.850 


114 


132.558 


1.600 


64 


74.418 


2.875 


I 15 


133-721 


I .625 


65 


75-581 


2 . 900 


I 16 


134-884 


1.6S0 


66 


76- 744 


2.92s 


117 


136.047 


1.67s 


67 


7 7 - 907 


2.950 


118 


137.209 


I .700 


68 


79. 069 


2.975 


119 


138.372 


1.72s 


69 


80. 232 


3.000 


120 


139.535 


1.750 


70 


81.395 


3.025 


121 


140.698 


1.775 


71 


82.558 


3.050 


1 22 


141. 861 


1.800 


72 


83-721 


3.07s 


123 


143.023 


1.82s 


73 


84.883 


3.100 


124 


144.186 


1.850 


74 


86.046 


3. 125 


125 


145 .349 


1.875 


75 


87. 209 


3.150 


126 


146.512 


I .goo 


76 


88.372 


3-175 


127 


147.675 


1.92s 


77 


89. 535 


3. 200 


128 


148.837 


1.950 


78 


90.697 


3-225 


129 


150.000 


1.97s 


79 


91 . 860 


3-250 


130 


151.163 


2.000 


80 


93.023 


3-275 


131 


152.326 


2.025 


81 


94.186 


3-300 


132 


153.489 


2.050 


82 


95.349 


3-325 


133 


154.651 


2.075 


83 


96. 511 


3-350 


134 


155.814 


2. 100 


84 


97.674 


3.375 


135 


156.977 


2.125 


85 


98.837 


3 . 400 


136 


158.140 


2. 150 


86 


100 . 000 


3.42s 


137 


159.303 


2.175 


87 


101.163 


3.450 


138 


160.465 


2.200 


88 


102.325 


3.475 


139 


161.628 


2.225 


89 


103.488 


3.500 


140 


i#fc.79i 


2.250 


90 


104.651 


3.525 


141 


163.954 


2.275 


91 


105.814 


3.550 


142 


165.117 


2.300 


02 


106. 977 


3.575 


143 


166. 279 


2.325 


93 


108. 139 


3.600 


144 


167.442 


2.350 


94 


109. 302 


3.62s 


145 


168.605 



MILK. 269J 

MILK PRICES BY MEASURES.— C^w/mz^^^. 



Cents per 


Cents per 
40-qt. 
Can. 


Cents per 


Cents per 


Cents per 
40-qt. 
Can. 


Cents per 


Quart. 


100 Pounds. 


Quart. 


100 Pounds. 


3.650 


146 


169.768 


3.975 


159 


184.884 


3.675 


147 


170.931 


4.000 


160 


186.047 


3.700 


14S 


1 72 . 093 


4.02s 


161 


187. 210 


3.725 


149 


173. 250 


4.050 


162 


188.373 


3.750 


150 


174.419 


4.075 


163 


189.535 


3-775 


151 


175. 582 


4. 100 


164 


190 . 69S 


3. Goo 


152 


176.74.5 


4.125 


165 


191.861 


3.825 


153 


177.907 


4- 150 


166 


193.024 


3.850 


154 


179.070 


4.175 


167 


194.187 


3.875 


15s 


180. 233 


4. 200 


168 


195.349 


3.900 


156 


i8r . 396 


4.225 


169 


196.512 


3.925 


157 


182.559 


4.250 


170 


197.67s 


3.950 


158 


183.7^1 


4- 275 


171 


198.838 



RELATIVE VALUE OF MILK AND CREAM OF 
DIFFERENT FAT CONTENTS. 

(Fraser ) 

The table gives the relative value per quart and number of quarts in 
a dollar's worth of milk or cream of different fat contents, calculated, 
according to the food value of 3-per-cent. milk at 5 cents per quart. 



Per Cent 
of Fat. 


Price per 
Quart, 


No. of 
Quarts 


Per Cent, 
of Fat. 


Price per 
Quart, 


No. of 
Quarts 


Cents. 


a Dollar. 


Cents. 


a Dollar. 


0. 1 


2.8 


35.7 


17 


15.5 


6.4 


I 


3.5 


28.6 


18 


16.3 


6 


I 


2 


4.2 


23.8 


19 


17.0 


5 


9 


3 


S-o 


20.0 


20 


17.7 


5 


6 


4 


5.7 


17. 5 


21 


18.4 


5 


4 


5 


6.5 


15.4 


22 


19.2 


S 


2 


6 


7.2 


13.9 


23 


20.0 


5 





7 


8.0 


12.5 


24 


20.7 


4 


8 


8 


8.7 


II. 5 


25 


21.5 


4 




9 


9.5 


10.5 


26 


22. 2 


4 


5 


10 


10 . 2 


9.8 


27 


23.0 


4 


3 


II 


II .0 


90 


28 


23.7 


4 


2 


12 


II. 7 


8.5 


29 


24.5 


4 


I 


13 


12. 5 


8.0 


30 


25.2 


4 





14 


13.2 


7.6 


31 


26.0 


3 


8 


15 


14.0 


7.1 


32 


26.7 


3 


7 


16 


14.7 


6.8 . 









270 



DAIRYING. 



AMOUNTS OF MILK, CREAM, OR SKIM MILK TO RE 
USED IN 3IODIFYING MILK. (Pearson.) 

The amounts of cream or skim milk that are to be used in 
modifying normal milk may be calculated by use of the follow- 
ing simple method: 

Draw a square and write at the two left-hand corners the 
percentages of fat in the milk and the cream or skim milk that 
are to be mixed. In the centre place the percentage required. 
The differences between the latter figures and those at the left- 
hand corners are then placed at the two corners with which they 
stand in line. The two right-hand figures will represent the 
proportions of milk and cream or skim milk that should be 
weighed out in niaking the modified milk. 




-C(or C—B) 



A—C{ox C—A) 



Example. — How much 5 per cent milk must be added to milk 
containing 3.5 per cent fat in order to raise its fat content to 4 
per cent? In this case ^ = 3.5, 5=4, and C=$ (see above); 



then 5-C=i.o and^-B = 



^X 100= 66.7 and -^X 100= 
^ 1-5 1-5 

3.33. To make, say, 1000 lbs. of 4 per cent milk 667 lbs. of 3.5 
per cent and 333 lbs. of 5 per cent milk must therefore be taken. 
This method of calculation may be used to advantage in 
modifying or standardizing milk or cream, with either cream, 
new milk, or skim milk, whether a product of a higher or lower 
fat content is wanted than that at hand. 



MILK. 



271 



STANDARDIZATION OF MILK. 

(Erf.) 

Quantity of Skim Milk to be Added to, or Subtracted from, ioo 
Pounds op Milk to Make Milk op a Desired Per Cent, op Fat. 









Desired Per Cent, of Fat. 








3.25 


3.50 


^.75 


4.0 


4 25 


4.50 


4.75 


5.0 


r3. 


- 7.G93 


-14.285 


-20.000 


-25.00 


-29.412 


-33 333 


-36.842 


-40.000 




3.1 


- 4 616 


-11.428 


-17.333 


-22.50 


-27.059 


-31.111 


-34.737 


-38.000 


ts 


,3.2 


- 1.539 


- 8 571 


-14.666 


-20.00 


- 24 706 


-28 888 


-32 632 


-36.000 


a 


3.3 


+ 1 539 


- 5.714 


- 12.000 


-17.50 


-22.353 


-26,666 


- 30.527 


-34 000 




3 4 


+ 4.616 


- 2.857 


- 9.333 


-15 00 


-20.000 


-24 444 


-28.422 


-32.000 


35 


+ 7693 


- 0.000 


- 6.666 


-12 50 


-17.647 


-22.222 


-26.317 


-30 000 


§ 


36 


+ 10.760 


+ 2.857 


- 4.000 


-10.00 


-15.294 


-20 000 


-24.212 


-28.000 


^ 


37 


+ 13 837 


+ 5.714 


- 1.333 


- 7.50 


- 12.941 


- 17 777 


-22.107 


- 26.000 




3.8 


+ 16.914 


+ 8.571 


+ 1.333 


- 5.00 


- 10.588 


-15 555 


- 20.000 


-24.000 


S 


3.9 


+ 19.991 


+ 11.428 


+ 4.000 


- 2.50 


- 8.235 


-13.333 


-17.897 


- 22.000 


.s- 


4.0 


+ 23.068 


+ 14.285 


+ 6.666 


- 0.00 


- 5.882 


-11.111 


-15.792 


- 20 000 




41 


+ 26.145 


+ 17.142, 


+ 9.333 


+ 2.50 


- 2.429- 8.888 


- 13.687 


- 18.000 


1 


42 


+ 29.222 


+ 19.999+12.000 


+ 5.00 


- 0.076'- 6.666 


-11.582 


- 16.000 


43 


+ 32.299 


+ 22.856+14.666 


+ 7.50 


+ 0.076;- 4.444 


- 9.477 


- 14 000 


$2 


44 


+ 35.376 


+ 25.713!+ 17.333 


+ 10 00 


+ 2.429 - 2.222 


- 7.372 


-12.000 


6 


45 


+ 38.453 


+ 28.57 +20.000 


+ 12.50 


+ 5.882 - 0.000 


- 5.267 


- 10 000 


46 


+ 41.530 


+ 31.427,+ 22.666 


+ 15.00 


+ 8.235 + 2.222 


- 3.162 


- 8.000 


^ 


47 


+ 44 607 


+ 34.284+25.333 


+ 17.50 


+ 10.588+ 4.444 


- 1.057 


- 6.000 


(^ 


4.8 


+ 47 684 


+ 37.141+28.000 


+ 20.00 


+ 12.941+ 6 666 


+ 1.057 


- 4 000 




4.9 


+ 50.761 


+ 39.998+30.666 


+ 22 50 


+ 17 647+ 8 888 


+ 3.162 


- 2.000 




.5.0 


+53.838 


+42.855 


+ 33.333 


+25.09 


+ 20.000 

1 


+ 11111 


+ 5.267 


- 0.000 



To find the pounds of skim milk to be added or removed, trace the 
vertical column of the desired per cent of fat to where the horizontal 
column representing the per cent, of fat in the milk on hand intersects; 
the result will be the number of pounds of skim milk to beadded or 
removed to loo lbs. rf milk, as indicated by a plus or minus sign 
before the figure (see 111. Bull. No. 75). 



272 DAIRYING. 

RULES AND REGULATIONS 

to he observed in the care of cows and the handling of milk shipped 
to the City of New York. (Dept. of Health, City of New York.) 

The Cows. — I. The cows must be kept clean. 
2. Manure must not be permitted to collect upon the tail, 
sides, udder, and belly of any milch-cows. 

Stahlcc. — I. Cow stables must be well lighted and ventilated. 

2. Floors must be tight and well drained. 

3. Manure must be removed from the stalls and gutters before 
the morning milking and also before the afternoon milking, 
where the cows remain in the stables all day. 

4. Walls and ceilings must be kept clean, 

5. The ceiling must be so constructed that dust and dirt 
therefrom shall not readily fall to the floor or into the milk. 

6. Stables must be whitewashed at least once a year. 

The Water-supply. — i. The water-supply used in the barn 
and for washing milk utensils must be free from contamination. 

The Milk House. — i. A milk house must be provided which 
is separated from the stable and the dwelling-house. 

2. It must be kept clean and must not be used for any purpose 
except the handling of milk. 

The Milkers. — i. No person having any communicable dis- 
ease, or one caring for persons having such disease, must be 
allowed to handle the milk or milk utensils. 

The Utensils: — i. All milk-utensils, including pails, cans, 
strainers, and dippers, must be kept thoroughly clean and must 
be washed and scalded after each using. 

The Milk. — i. Milk from diseased cows must not be shipped. 

2. The milk must not be in any way adulterated. 

3. The straining of milk must be done in the milk house only. 

4. All milk must be cooled to a temperature not above 55 deg. F. 
within two hours after being drawn, and kept thereafter below 
that temperature, and must be cooled to 50 deg. or less if not 
delivered at the creamery twice daily. 

5. The use of any preservative or coloring matter is an adul- 
teration, and its use by a producer or shipper will be a sufficient 
cause for the exclusion of his milk from the City of New York. 



J 



CREAM. 



273 



III. CREAM. 
PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION OF CREAM. (Konig.) 





Mean of 47 
Analyses. 


Minimum. 


Maximum. 


Water 


67.61 

23.80 

4.12 

3-92 

.53 


43.04 

15.78 

1-75 

.62 

. II 


83.23 


Fat 




Casein, Albumen, etc 

Milk-sugar 


8.ig 
6. 23 


Ash 








Specific gravity, i.ioo. . 


100.00 





PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION OF DAIRY 
PRODUCTS. (Konig.) 























<u 




U T3 S 






Specific 




i<'^ 




£ 






< 


Gravity. 


Skim -milk, gfrav- 
















ity creaming . . . 
Centrifugal skim- 


5b 


90-43 


.87 


3-26 


4-74 


.70 


1-0357 
















milk 


7 


90.60 


.31 


3.06 


5-29 


•74 


I 0350 


Buttermilk 


57 


90. 12 


1.09 


4 03 


4.04 


.72 


i.o-;48 


Whey 


4b 


93-38 


• 32 


.86 


4-79 


■65 


r.0272 


Preserved milk . . . 


4 


87.97 


3 21 


3-34 


4-74 


•74 


1-0313 


Condensed milk. 
















(no sugar added) 


^6 


S8. qq 


12.42 


11.92 


14.49 


2.18 




Condensed milk, 
















(suerar added). . 


64 


2S.6l 


10.35 


11.79 


SO. 06* 


2.19 




Scherff's condens- 
















ed milk 


5 


72.87 


6.6. 


8.20 


10.63 


1.68 


Lactic Alco- 


Koumiss (from 














acid. hoi. 


mares' milk) 


43 


90.44 


1.40 


2.24 


1.77 


.42 


.91 I. 91 


Koumiss (from 
















cows' milk). .. 


II 


89.20 


1.83 


2.66 


4.09 


.43 


•55 i-U 


Kephir 


22 


91.21 


I 44 


3-49 


2.41 


.68 


1.02 -75 



* 13.84 per cent milk-sugar, 36.22 per cent cane-sugar. 



274 



DAIRYING. 



YIELD OF CREAM FROM MILK OF DIFFERENT 
RICHNESS. 









Per Cent of Fat 


in Cream. 










Fat in 


























Milk. 


12 


15 


18 


20 


25 


30 


35 


40 


45 


50 


55 


60 


Per Cent. 




























Number of Pounds of Cream from i 


Doo lbs. of Milk 




3.0 


244 


195 


162 


146 


116 


97 


86 


73 


65 


S8 


53 


48 


3-1 


253 


201 


168 


151 


I 20 


TOO 


89 


75 


67 


60 


55 


50 


3-2 


261 


208 


173 


156 


124 


104 


92 


78 


69 


62 


56 


52 


3-3 


268 


215 


179 


161 


129 


107 


95 


80 


71 


64 


58 


53 


3-4 


277 


221 


184 


166 


133 


I 10 


97 


83 


74 


66 


60 


55 


3.5 


286 


228 


190 


171 


137 


114 


TOO 


85 


76 


68 


62 


57 


3.6 


294 


235 


196 


176 


141 


117 


103 


88 


78 


70 


64 


S8 


3-7 


303 


242 


201 


181 


145 


120 


106 


90 


80 


72 


66 


60 


3-8 


311 


248 


207 


186 


149 


124 


109 


93 


82 


74 


67 


62 


3-9 


319 


25s 


212 


191 


153 


127 


112 


95 


85 


76 


69 


63 


4.0 


328 


262 


218 


196 


157 


130 


115 


98 


87 


78 


71 


65 


4.1 


336 


268 


223 


201 


161 


134 


117 


100 


89 


80 


73 


67 


4.2 


345 


275 


229 


206 


I 65 


137 


120 


103 


91 


82 


75 


68 


4-3 


353 


282 


235 


211 


169 


140 


123 


105 


94 


84 


77 


70 


4-4 


361 


289 


240 


216 


173 


144 


126 


108 


96 


86 


78 


72 


4.5 


370 


295 


246 


221 


177 


147 


129 


no 


98 


88 


80 


73 


4.6 


n^ 


302 


251 


226 


181 


150 


132 


113 


TOO 


90 


82 


75 


4.7 


387 


309 


257 


231 


18=; 


154 


135 


115 


102 


92 


84 


77 


4.8 


395 


315 


263 


236 


189 


157 


138 


118 


105 


94 


86 


78 


4.9 


403 


322 


268 


241 


193 


161 


140 


120 


T07 


96 


87 


80 


5.0 


412 


329 


274 


246 


197 


164 


143 


123 


109 


98 


89 


82 



CREAM. 



275 



00 





M 


00 


M 


tN 


r^ 


m 


rr, 


0\ 


t^ 


m 


r^ 


ro 


0\ 


lO 


m 


o 


00 


t-~ 


m 


m 


p) 


„ 




■«- 




f) 


CO 




(N 


w 


w 


w 


N 


w 


t^ 





P) 


O 


r^ 








m 


1^ 


m 


« 





VO 


N 


CO 


in 


N 


o 


CO 


vn 


^ 


m 


N 


„ 




-^ 


CI 


"' 


C) 








w 




^ 


« 


VO 





ro 


M 


in 


en 


m 


VO 


„ 


00 


VO 


m 


in 


n 


t^ 


^ 


„ 


n> 


t^ 


in 


^ 


pj 


M 





Tf 


"^ 




''' 


"' 




i>< 




w 


w 


IM 




t 





^ 


m 


00 


vo 


t^ 





in 


N 


„ 





■* 


O 


vo 


(^ 


o 


00 


vn 


in 


m 


(4 


„ 





^ 




f^ 






(N 




M 


w 


" 


« 




ro 





in 


in 





o 





^ 


OS 


t^ 


m 


in 


ro 




m 


N 




t^ 


VO 


TT 


n 


11 











'" 


"' 








0. 




" 






cs 





in 


r^ 


N 


« 


fo 


CO 


^ 


« 








o 


00 


^ 


^, 


O 


t^ 


in 


rr- 


N 


M 


o 


Ov 


■f 


n 


f. 


m 




<N 


w 


M 


W 








„ 





^o 


00 


in 


'J- 


t-^ 


„ 


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VO 


in 


m 


^ 


f^ 


ro 


n 


oo 


V) 


^ 


m 


^ 


o 


Ov 


oo 


^ 


r<: 


rv) 




N 


M 


^ 


N 


w 






^ 








t^ 





!■- 


t^ 





in 


N 





OS 





u 


\o 


CI 


o 


f^ 


in 


^ 


ex 


>< 


o 


00 


00 






ro 




W 


w 


w 


pt 


CM 








0^ 





00 


0) 


O^ 





m 


o 


VO 


M- 


■* 


in 


00 


iri 


^ 


ON 


VO 


in 


(T-, 


,^ 


n 


Ov 


00 


t-» 




ro 


m 






w 


N 


N 










00 


O 


t> 


m 


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m 


t^ 


fn 





Ov 


ON 


O 


r- 


^ 




00 


\o 


T^ 


M 


~i 


o 


00 


t~. 




CO 








u 


I. 




c. 




"" 


" 




t^ 








in 


^ 


VO 





VO 


^ 


^ 


^ 


in 




ro 


o 


t^ 


"■) 


m 


N 


o 






t^ 












ex 












" 




u^ 





M 


t^ 


\o 


ON 


m 


o 


oo 


00 


00 





>o 


N 






T^ 


N 


M 






t^ 
























" 






M- 





0) 


00 


ON 


M 


t^ 


n- 


« 


N 


m 


m 




H 


00 


in 


m 




o 






t-^ 












" 












" 






ro 





ro 


o 


H 


^ 





00 


t^ 


t^ 


00 





ro 




t^ 


in 


m 


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IM 




W 










M 




f. 





^ 


« 


m 


t^ 


ro 


H 


H 


H 


en 


in 


- 


o 


^ 


? 


?! 





o> 


oo 


t^ 


VO 


in 


■* 


„ 





in 


ro 


in 





t^ 


in 


in 


VO 


t-^ 





^, 


00 


m 


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M 





CO 


t^ 


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in 


^ 


^ 


ro 






(.M 


w 






M 




" 


M 


" 



•JU3D J3d 



00 On O 



276 



DAIRYING. 



LIST OF HAND AND POWER CREAM-SEPARATORS 
ON THE AMERICAN MARKET, 1907. 



Name. 


Capacity 


Retail 


Manufacturer 


per Hour. 


Price. 


or Agency. 


A. Hand or Dairy Separa- 








tors. 








I. De Laval" Baby' or "Dairy" 








Cream-separators. 


lbs. 






Iron-stool "Humming- 








bird" 


300 


$70 1 




Baby No. i , Iron -stool. . . 


500 


100 1 




No. 2, Iron -stool. .. 


700 


125 


The De Laval Sep- 


" No. 2, solid frame. . 


700 


125 \ 


arator Co.. N. Y. 


" No. 3. solid frame. . 


1200 


200 1 


City. 


Iron-stool" Daisy" 


400 


85 1 




Dairy Steam Turbine .... 


I2QO 


225 J 




2. U. S. Cream-separators. 








Improved U.S. Separators , 




40-100 \ 


Vermont Farm 


Nos. 9, 8, 7, 6, 5 

Dairy Turbine, No. 5 • • • • 


175-700 


Machine Co., Bel- 


500 


150 I 


lows Falls, Vt. 


3. The Empire Cream-separa- 








tors. 








Nos. 0, lA, iB, 2A. 4B.. . 
Empire No. 4B Turbine . . 


175-825 

775-825 


60-1 25 1 
150 1 


Empire Cream 
Separator Co., 
Bloomfield. N. J. 


4. Sharpies Farm Crcam-scpa- 








raiors. 








Tubular Hand Sep., 6 
styles, Nos. i, 2, 3, 4, 6, 9 


175-900 


40-125 


The Sharpies Sep- 
arator Co., West 
Chester, Pa. 


S. The Eclipse Cream-separator 








Nos. 1-5 (s styles) 

Nos. 1-3 (new style) 


1 200-650 
1 300-900 


55-125/ 
60-100 1 


The C. L. Chap- 
man Cream Sep. 
Works, Erie, Pa. 


6. The Otncga Separators 






The Omega Sepa- 


Nos. 1-4 (4 styles) 


325-700 


75-125 


rator Co., Lan- 
sing, Mich. 


7. American Cream-separators. 








Nos. 0-3 (4 styles) 


200—600 


55-150 j 


Am. Separator Co., 
Bain bridge, NrY. 


8. Davis Cream-separators. 






Davis Cream Sep- 


3 styles 


350-700 


75—125 ■ 


arator Co., Chi- 








cago, 111. 


9. "Perfect" Separators. 




f 


Melchior, Arm- 


Nos. 7 and 8 


880-1 100 


165—200 i 


strong & Dessau, 
Agts., New York. 






10. Reid's Hand Separators. 








4 styles, Daisy Nos. 1-4. . . 


150-500 


55-100 1 


A. H. Reid, Phila- 
• delphia. Pa. 



CREAM. 



27? 



HAND AND POWER CREAM-SEPARATORS 

iConlinued). 



Name. 


Capacity 


Retail 


Manufacturer 


per Hotir. 


Price. 


or Af^^ency. 


Hand or Dairy Separators 








(Continued). 








1 1 . The Iowa Dairy Separators. 


lbs. 


r 


Iowa Dairy Sepa- 


7 styles, Nos. 1-7 


250-1500 


$70-200 { 


rator Co., Water- 
loo, la. 


1 2. National Cream-separators. 




\ 


National Dairy 


Nos. 10-16 (4 styles). . . . 


250-650 


60-100 < 


Machine Co., 
Goshen, Ind. 


13. Peerless Cream-separators . . 




\ 


Waterloo Cream- 


3 styles (Nos. 1-3) 


450-800 


85-125 


separator Co., 
Waterloo, Iowa. 


14. "Simplex" Link-blade Sep- 








arators. 








Nos. 0, I, 2, and 2+ Hand. 
No. 2^ Turbine 


350-1200 
1 200 


75-200 J 
225 1 


D. H. Burrell & 
Co.. Little Falls, 


15. " Fenix" Cream-separators , 




^ I 


N. Y, 


Nos. 0-5, style D 

Nos. 0-4, style K 


300-1 500 
85-350 


55-220 j 
15-55 [ 


Creamery Supply 
Mfg. Co., Clinton 
Jet., Wis. 


16. The Cleveland Separators. . 




f 


The Cleveland 


Nos. 1-3 (3 styles) 


500-700 


So-iio !• 


Cream Sep. Co., 






I 


Cleveland, Ohio. 


17. Th^ Jiistrite Cream-separa- 








tors. 








Nos. 2, 3, 4, 6 


275-625 


70-125 \ 


Smith Mfg. Co., 
Chicago, 111. 


18. Bluebell Cream Harvesters. 








Dairymaid Cr. Harvesters. 




\ 


Internat. Harv. 


Both, Nos. 1-4 (4 styles). 


300-750 


70-125 \ 


Co. of America, 
Chicago, 111. 


19. Improved Iowa Dairy Sepa- 








rator. 












{ 


la. Dairy Separa- 


Nos. 1-4 (4 styles) 


300-700 


70-125 •! 


tor Co., Minne- 






apolis, Minn. 


20. Wisconsin Dairy Cream- 








separator. 








Nos. 2-5 (4 styles) 


250-700 


85-130 { 


Starch Bros., La 
Crosse, Wis. 


21. Hawthorne Dairy Cream- 








separators. 








Nos. I, 2, and 3 


250-550 


36-51 . 50 


fMontgome ry , 


Little Marvel 


175-200 


24.85 


\ Ward & Co., 


Golden Harvest, Nos. 4-7 


350-650 


45-55-50 


I Chicago, 111. 


22. Melotte Cream-separators. 








7 styles (Nos. 1-6) 


400-1300 


90-180 f 


R. A. Lister & Co., 


4 styles (Nos. A, B,C, and 






Ltd., Montreal, 


D) 


280-600 


65-95 I 


Canada. 







278 



DAIRYING. 



HAND AND POWER CREAai-SEPARATORS 

{Continued). 



Name. 


Capacity 
per Hour. 


Retail 
Price. 


Manufacturer- 
or Agency. 


B. Power Separators. 








I. Alpha Separators. 

Alpha No. I , Belt Power. . 


lbs. 
3500 


$500 ] 
750 1 
525 
800 
350 
375 j 
250 1 
275 J 

] 

100-360 \ 
2QO-360 
300-500 f 
325-525 1 

175-450 ■ 

225-500 ■ 

750 
500 • 
400 




" No. 2, " " .. 
" No. I , Steam Turb 
" No. 2, " 
*' Acm?, Belt Power. 
" Steam Turb. . 
Standard, Belt Power. . . . 
Steam Turbine. 
2. Tubular Cream-separators. 
Tubular Steam, 7 styles, 
Nos. 5, 7, 10, 16, 26, 32, 


5000 

3500 

5000 

2000 

2000 
1 100-1300 
1 100-1300 

500-4300 
2600-4300 
1200-3000 
1200-3000 
500 

800-3000 

1200-3500 

5000 
3350 
2200 


The De Laval Sep- 
arator Co., N. Y. 
City. 

The Sharpless Sep- 


Tubular Belt, 3 styles, 

Nos. 25, 33, and 41 

3. U. S. Cream-separators. 
Belt, Nos. 2^.1,0 (3 styles) 
Steam Turbine, Nos. 2^, 


Chester, Pa. 

Vermont Farm 
Machine Co., Bel- 
lows Falls, Vt. 


4. The Reid Steam Turbine 


A. H. Reid, Phila- 
delphia, Pa. 


5. The Eclipse Separators. 

Nos. 6-9 (4 styles) 

6. "Simplex" Link-blade Sep- 

arators. 
Nos. 2i, 3, and 4, Belt or 
Turbine 


The L. S. Chap- 
man Separator 
Works, Erie, Pa. 

D. H. Burrell & 
Co., Little Falls, 


7. ''Perfect" Power Separators. 
The Giant 


N. Y. 


The Favorite 


strong & Dessau, 


The Gloria . . 


Agts., New York. 







FORMULAS FOR FINDING THE FAT CONTENT 
OP CREAM. 

Fleischmann s formula: 

lOo(/-/,) 
Per cent fat in cream = /a = 7; "H/^i* 

where R = per cent of cream obtained, /" = per cent fat in 
milk, /i = per cent fat in skim-milk; or 

looF 



CREAM. 279 

where /^= per cent of fat in butter, B = yield of butter from 

ICO lbs. of milk, A =percentage churning. Under ordinary 

conditions of creaming these formulas may be simplified to 

/2 = 6.67/- 1.42, and /, = S-llB. 

Fort?inla for finding the per cent creavi to be separated wJitti 
a certain fat content in the cream is z<:/tf«^<f^/ (Fleisch niann); 
ioo(/-/..) 

"'- A-A ' 

/,/i, andya = per cent of fat in full milk, skim-milk, and 

cream, respectively. 

Formula for diluting cream to a desired fat content: 

c Y. fi 
Separator skim-milk to be added = jir = c, 

c being the pounds of original cream of a fat content oi f\ , 
andy2 the fat content wanted in the cream. 

HANDLING AND CARE OF CREAM SEPARATORS. 

By J. D. Frederiksen, Little Falls, N. Y., Manager Chr. Hansen's 
Laboratory. 

In selecting a separator, local conditions, space at dis- 
posal, nearness to its manufacturer who can put it up, 
be held responsible, and quickly attend to repairs, etc., 
may be of importance, and the following points should be 
considered: 

Thorough Separation. — All manufacturers claim that 
their machines do perfect work, but they do not always 
come up to ihe claims. Under normal conditions the meas- 
ure for thoroughness of separation is the contents of butter-fat 
in the skim-milk as ascertained by the Babcock test. The best 
modern separators skim practically absolutely clean, and 
there is now no excuse for anything but perfect skimming. 
With normal milk at the proper temperature run into the 
machine at the rate of the capacity claimed for it, no sepa- 
rator should leave more than o.\% of butter-fat in the skim- 
milk, which is the smallest percentage that can be ascer- 
tained by the Babcock test with accuracy. 

The table below gives the grand averages for the per- 
centages of fat found in the trials of a number of the 
leading separators, conducted at the experiment stations 
of Delaware. Cornell (N. Y.). Vermont, Pennsvlvania, and 



280 



DAIRTIKG. 



PER CENT FAT IN CENTRII UGAL SKIM-MILK. 



Style of Separator. 



Butter Accumulator 

Columbia Cream Separator 

Reicf's Impr. Danish Separator . . 

Danish- Weston " 

De Laval Alpha No. I " 

■' Alpha Acme " 

" AI|)ha Turbine " 

" Alpha Baby No. 2 Separator. . 
Alpha Baby No 3 

" Horizontal Separator 

Jumbo Separator 

Sharpies Russian Separator 

'■ Imperial " 

U. S. Butter Extractor Sep. No. i 

Do. (as separator) 

U. S. Butter Extr. Sep. No. 2 

Do. No. 3 

U. S. Separator No. i 

Do. No. 3 

Do, No. 5 

Victoria, 30 gal. Separator 

Do. 70 gal. " 



Averages of Trials at 

American Experiment 

Stations. 



Number 
of Trials. 


Per cent 

Fat in 

Skim-milk. 


II 


.14 


19 


.12 


8 


.14 


3 


.10 


2 


.10 


21 


.09 


51 


.og 


112 


.08 


7 


.125 


9 


19 


4 


.21 


34 


.24 


30 


•34 





.24 


2 


.14 


8 


•34 


ID 


.21 


9 


•17 


21 


.10 


27 


.13 


25 


.22 


12 


.10 



With the constant improvement in machines it is not 
difficult to find separators which will do perfect work. 

SifJiplicify, durability and safety of const 7-tiction are con- 
siderations of vital importance. The separator must be 
simple in construction so as to be easy to handle, to clean, 
and to oil. It must be durable, so that it will need but few 
repairs, and, first of all, it must be absolutely safe. Too 
many deplorable fatal accidents are already due to burst- 
ing separator bowls, and too much stress cannot be laid on 
the demand that the machine must by strongly built, of first- 
class material and workmanship, so that accidents are 
made impossible with reasonably careful handling. 

As the pressure on the circumference of the bowl increases 
with the square of the speed, it is evident that the modern 
high-speed separators are exposed to a tremendous strain 
— in fact the tensile strain in some of them is as high as 
20,000 to 30,000 lbs. to the square inch. Fortunately, the im- 
provements in bearings and other features of construction 



CREAM. 



281 



which have enabled manufacturers to increase the speed, 
have caused them at the same time to reduce the diameter 
of the bowl, which makes the modern machine much safer 
than the first crude and heavy separators. 

Forver. — Considering its capacity, a well-built separator 
requires comparatively little power, whether coal or 
muscle. But as either is money, it is a matter of impor- 
tance that none be wasted. Many so-called hand separa- 
tors are altogether too heavy to run by hand, hence in 
selecting one see that it is easy to keep it running for 
several hours. The tests made at the experiment stations 
by dynamometer, as well as by measuring the steam con- 
sumed, show that there is a great deal of steam wasted in 
a creamery above that actually required to drive the separa- 
tor; that "the turbines use steam extravagantly, but that 
the small engine of the creamery uses it still more extrava- 
gantly." Due allowance must therefore be made for this 
waste in comparing results obtained by various methods 
of testing. The following table gives some of the results 
published by the stations: 

Horse-power per lOOO lbs. 3Iilk. 



Style of Separator. 


Dela- 
ware. 


New 

York. 


Ver- 
mont. 


Wisconsin. 






2.69 
3--J7 


0.79 


2.45 






Raid's Improved Danish 





1-52 


Alpha No. I 

" Alpha Acme 

Baby N<^. 2 

" No. 3 


0-37 




0.81 
0.98 

0.46 


0.26 


1-37 
















No :( 




0.76 


0.63 

0.72 


No. 5 




Victoria 700 lbs 




2.78 




" '■o p'als 


0.74 
0.85 




" 2Q gals . 

De Laval Alpha Turbine 

Sharpies Imperial 

Russian 


1.47 to 1.79 

1.42 

I .75 to 2. II 



These tests are made with single machines and do not 
guarantee that all separators of the same makes consume 



282 



DAlRTlKa 



the same power or steam. The accumulating results of 
such trials being compiled, however, become a guide in 
estimating the value of the various machines in the 
market. As between belt and turbine (or direct steam) 
power, the former is preferable in large creameries. In 
small plants one is about as economical as the other, and 
the choice may depend upon whether an engine is needed 
for churning, butter-worker, pump, and other purposes, or 
you can do without it. 

Capacity. — In selecting a separator it is best to have 
plenty of capacity. In a large creamery it is better to 
have two separators of moderate size than one very large 
machine. Only in very large creameries may separators 
of largest capacity be preferable. The capacity should be 
such as to finish the day's work in 4 to 6 hours at the tirrie 
when there is most milk. In the private dairy, using a 
hand separator, the work should require only one hour, 
rather less. The following would be our idea of the proper 
capacity: 



Largest Supply of Milk 
per Day, lbs. 


Number of 
Machines. 


Capacity of Each 

Machine, lbs. 

per hour. 


Power. 




J 2 or ) 
1 more | 

2 

2 

2 


2,000 to 2,500 

1,500 " 2,000 

1,200 " 1,500 

1,000 

I,2QO 

600 to 1,000 

600 

300 to 500 

300 
150 


Engine 






« 




Eng. or Turb. 


2,500 " 5,000 




J Sheep, or dog, 
1 or turbine, 
j Hand, or dog. 






\ or sheep. 
Hand 


Less than 100 





Condition of Cream. — As discharged from the separator, 
the cream should be smooth and even, free from froth and 
of perfect " churnability." 

As to cost, the best jnachine is always the cheapest in the long 
run. Repairs, waste of fat in the skim-milk, of oil, and ol 
coal, by an inferior machine, will more than make up any 
saving in first cost. 



CREAM. 283 

Running the Separator. 

The Operator should understand his Business. — He should 
have thorough training in creameries as a helper and, if 
possible, in a dairy school, before undertaking to manage 
a creamery separator on his own responsibility. A new 
machine should be put up and started by the manufacturer 
or his agent, and prove in perfect shape and efficiency be- 
fore he leaves. Every manufacturer gives detailed in- 
structions as to the care of the separator, and such an 
instruction book should always be at hand. The operator 
of hand as well as of power machines should make him- 
self familiar with every detail of the construction. 

Condition and Temperature of the Milk. — Fresh and warm 
from the cow, the milk is in the best condition to be skimmed. 
If it cannot be had in that condition, it should be aerated 
and cooled on the farm, so that it arrives at the creamery 
or the dairy at not over 60°. Then reheat it to 80° or 85°, 
not under 75° and not over 90°. This heating is prefer- 
ably done in some continuous heater, as it is dangerous to 
heat it in bulk, because milk standing some time at 85° is 
apt to spoil. While the separator will skim at a lower 
temperature, either the skimming is not clean or less milk 
must be run through the machine in the same time. Of 
course, the milk must be sweet. 

■Starting. — Oil all bearings thoroughly, using only the very 
best oil. Ascertain that everything is in trim order, then 
start according to instructions, which vary for different 
kinds of machines. Always start carefully, and where the 
belt from the intermediate is shifted from loose to fixed 
pulley, do it slowly and gradually, helping with the hand 
on the belt to start the bowl. When the bowl appears to 
be running at full speed without shaking, ascertain if it 
really does so by means of the speed indicator, which 
should always be found on any power machine. 

Never allow the machine to run faster than permitted by 
the manufacturer. If you do, it is at your risk and at 
the risk of the lives of your assistants. Use the speed 
indicator often. 



284 DAIRYING. 

See that the feed of new milk is correct and that the pro- 
portion of cream to milk is as wanted. Hold a quart meas- 
ure under the skim-milk spout and a measuring glass un- 
der the cream outlet, and, when the quart measure is full, 
see how much cream you have in the measuring glass, tak- 
ing the time by your watch. If you have 6 ozs. of cream 
to I quart of skim-milk in 9 seconds, you have taken 6 
parts of cream from 38 of new milk, or a, little less than 
one sixth, or about 16^, and you are running at the rate 
of 950 lbs. per hour. How large a proportion of cream to 
take from the milk depends upon the richness of the milk 
and the consistency of cream desired. If you have 4^ 
milk and you wish cream of 28^ fat, you will take i 
part of cream from 7 of new milk, or 14^ . 

Keep the oil-cups filled and look frequently at all working 
parts of the machinery. Well started and regulated, it 
will run uninterrupted until all the milk is skimmed. 
When the last milk has entered the bowl, pour in suffi- 
cient skim-milk to crowd out all the cream left. If the 
skim-milk is removed from the building while the separa- 
tor is running, take satnples freqziently, or, if it is all left 
after the work is done, take a few average samples to test 
7uith the Babcock machine, so as to control the day' s work. 

Stop the machine cautiously, removing the motive power 
and letting the bowl come to a stand-still of itself without 
applying any brake. Remove the skim-milk left in the bowl 
by a siphon or otherwise, take off the covers, etc., and lift 
out the bowl. 

Cleaning. — First rinse the bowl and other parts which 
have been in contact with milk in cold or tepid water, and 
then scrub them in boiling water, frequently using some 
solution of sal-soda. Scrub and brush every corner. Rinse 
in clean boiling water and steam out the tin covers, etc. 
Wipe with a cloth and set the things to dry. Pump out 
every pipe that cannot be reached by hand and brush. If 
possible, avoid the use of rubber hose to conduct the milk 
from the vat or heater to the separator, but use open tin 
conductors or short tin pipes, which can be easily kept 
clean. Rubber hose cannot be washed in boiling water 



CREAM. 



285 



or soda, and is a source of contamination. Clean the 
separator stand carefully with a cloth and wipe the spindles, 
etc. Occasionally clean out the oil-chambers with kerosene 
oil, and always see to it that no gum is formed and that 
the oil-grooves and tubes are open. 

If the separator shakes, or in any way works imper- 
fectly, find the cause without delay and remedy it. If you 
fail to find the fault, or you cannot remedy it yourself, 
notify the manufacturer or his agent, and have him attend 
to it at once. 

Treatment of the Cream. — As the cream leaves the separa- 
tor, it should at once be cooled to 50° or lower. This in- 
sures " body " in the butter, and should not be neglected, 
at least not unless the cream is thoroughly chilled after it 
is ripened, before churning. 

LOSS OF BUTTER CAUSED BY INEFFICIENT 
SKIMMING. 

If three-tenths of one per cent of fat is left in the skim- 
milk, instead of two-tenths, in a separator creamery receiv- 
ing 1000 lbs. of milk a day, there will be a loss of about 340 
lbs. of butter for the whole year, on the supposition that 
1000 lbs. of milk yield 800 lbs. of skim-milk, and i lb. of 
butter contains .86 lbs. of fat. If the separation is still 
poorer, greater losses will be sustained, as will be seen in 
the table given below. (Friis.) 




286 



DAIRYIKG, 



STANDARDIZATION OF CREAM. (Erf.) 

Percentage Quantity of Cream of a Desired Fat Content made 
FROM Cream of a Certain Fat Content by Diluting with 
Milk Containing 4 Per Cent of Butter Fat. 



Per Cent 


Cream of Desired Fat Content. 


Fat in 

Cream 

on Hand. 


17 


20 


22 


25 


27 


30 


18 


92.857 

86.666 

81.250 

76.4706 

72. 2222 

68.4222 

65.0000 

61. 90s 

59.0909 

56.5217 

54. 1666 

52.0000 

50.0000 












19 
20 
21 












100 
94.706 
88.8888 
84.2222 
80.0000 
76.1905 
72.7272 
69.5651 
66.6666 
64.0000 
61.5385 


















100 
94.2125 

90.0000 
85.7143 
81.8181 
78.2608 
75 .0000 
72 .0000 
69. 2308 








23 
24 

25 

26 
27 

28 
29 
30 














100 
95.4545 
01 .3044 
87.5000 
84.0000 
80.3461 










100 
95.8333 
92. 0000 
88. 46 1 5 


100.00 



If cream is to be standardized with 4 per cent milk, the result found 
by the intersecting columns represents the pounds per hundred, or the 
per cent of the quantity which is cream of the per cent fat ori hand. 

Example. — If cream containing 20 per cent of butter fat is desired, 
and cream containing 26 per cent ot" fat is on hand, then 72.7 per cent 
of the quantity desired must be cream containing 26 per cent of fat, 
and 27.3 per cent of the quantity must be 4 per cent milk. (See III. 
Bull. No. 75; also p. 272.) 

STEAM BOILER AND ENGINE MANAGEMENT. 

By Frof. A. W. Richter, of the University of Wisconsin. 

Boiler. 

/^e^c/ Apparatus. — Every boiler should be provided with a 
check-valve, placed between the feed apparatus and boiler, and 
in such a manner as to have the weight of the valve assist in 
closing it. Between this check-valve and boiler there should be 
an additional globe or gate-valve which may be closed, thus 
permitting repairing or cleaning of the check-valve while the 
boiler is in operation. 

Water Supply. — Feed-water should enter a boiler in such a 
manner that the plates do not receive the direct impact of cold 
water. The usual practice is to have the feed enter through 
the blow-off pipe, thus preventing this pipe from clogging. The 
feed supply should be regulated so as to keep the water level 
as stationary as possible, The greatest care must be taken that 
the water level does not fall below the top of the flues. Neg 
Ject in this direction will cause the metal to become overheatec 
and consequently weakened, causing leakage of joints and m- 



CREAM. 287 

creased wear and tear, but more often resulting in an explosion 
of a more or less serious nature. 

Waier-glass and Water-gauges. — Every boiler should have 
three water-gauges in addition to a water-glass ; these are 
usually attached to a hollow cast-iron cylinder or tube con- 
nected with the water and steam spaces. 

The Abater-glass should be blown out daily, and, if clogged, 
can be safely cleaned with a bent wire. 

In no case should the water glass alone be depended upon to 
indicate the water level. 

Steam-gauge. — Each boiler should be provided with a steam- 
gauge, which gauge should be directly connected with it. 

Safety-valve. — Every boiler should be provided with asafety- 
^'alve having direct communication with the steam space, and 
there should, moreover, be an intervening valve. Some of 
the most disastrous explosions can be traced to faulty ar- 
rangement in this respect. The valve thoughtlessly left 
closed after cleaning or repairs prevents the safety-valve 
from relieving the pressure when it rises above the safe 
working pressure of the boiler. 

Safety-valves are of two kinds : spring and lever safety- 
valves. Of the two valves the lever-valve has the most dis- 
advantages, one of the most important being the ease with 
which it may be made useless by adding an additional weight 
to that already provided, in order to keep the valve, on its seat, 
and therefore greatly increasing the pressure at which it will 
blow off. 

A safety-valve should be raised each day by hand so as to 
allow steam to escape; this prevents clogging and rusting. 

The dealer will usually set the spring-valve so that it will 
blow off at the desired pressure. It can be adjusted, however, 
by loosening or tightening a screw provided for that purpose. 

The lever-valve may be set v;ith the aid of the following 
formula: 

_ bPA_-Vb-w: 

^- w • 

/ — distance from weight to fulcrum; 
^= " " valve centre to fulcrum; 

c = distance from the centre of gravity of the lever of the ful- 
crum; 



288 ^ ' DAIRYlNGo^ 

P = boiler pressure; 

A = area of valve ; 

y= weight of valve; 

w = " " lever, 

W = weight hung upon the lever 

Firing. — Firing should be gradual, and the grate kept com- 
pletely covered with coal or ashes. The fire should not be more 
than four or five inches deep unless the pieces of coal are large, 
in which case the depth may be increased. 

The fire-doors and flue-doors should not be opened in order to 
keep down the steam pressure. This practice not only wastes 
fuel but is injurious to the boiler, and will not be necessary if 
the boiler is properly attended to. 

Priming or Foaining. — Foaming is a rapid disturbance of the 
water, in consequence of which it rises in the boiler in the form 
of spray or foam; it is usually caused by dirty water, presence 
of oil, etc., the boiler not having been cleaned for some time or 
not thoroughly cleaned. Foaming may, however, be due to 
other causes, such as too small a steam space, sudden demand 
of a great quantity of steam, etc. In case a boiler foams all 
steam connections should be shut off and the fire dampened by 
means of a fresh supply of live coal or ashes. These precau- 
tions will usually suffice to allow the water to settle, and to 
enable one to ascertain the true water level. If the glass shows 
a small amount of water, start the pump or injector, and fill the 
boiler to a point between the second and third gauge. The 
boiler may then be blown off to the first gauge by means of the 
surface blow-off, if one be present, and if not present the regular 
blow-off valve may be used. This operation being repeated, 
the impurities are gradually diminished, but care must be taken 
that the water level does not fall below the top of the flues. 
The boiler can now be used as before, but in all cases it should 
be thoroughly cleaned as soon as po-^sible. 

Reinoval of Scale. — Potatoes, about eight or ten in number, 
are sometimes placed in the boiler after cleaning. Soda or 
kerosene may also be injected with the feed-water in quantity to 
be determined by observation. Boiler compounds should be 
used with caution, and when used should be obtained from a 
reliable dealer. Too great a quantity of any of the above will 
be harmful. 



CKEAM. 289 

Cleaning. — The interval during which a boiler requires no 
cfeaning depends upon the quantity and the quality of water 
evaporated. Under usual conditions, in order to obtain the 
best results, a boiler should be cleaned every six or eight weeks. 

If a boiler is to be cleaned it should be allowed to stand until 
it is partially cooled off. When blown out cold the metal in the 
interior will usually be found covered with a thick coating of soft 
deposit, which can easily be scraped off or washed off with a 
hose and stream of water. 

If a boiler be blown off while the metal is at a high tempera- 
ture, the deposited matter is usually baked and forms a solid and 
hard coating, increasing rapidly if not carefully removed by the 
process of chipping. 

Boiler Power. — The manner in which the horse-power of a 
boiler is usually calculated is far from satisfactory, depending 
rather upon its size than its power of evaporation. 

In 1884 the American Society of Mechanical Engineers 
adopted the following definite standard: 

" A horse-power shall be equivalent to an evaporation of 
thirty pounds of water into dry steam per hour from feed- 
water at 100° Fahrenheit, and under a pressure of 70 lbs. per 
square inch above the atmosphere." 

Steam-engine. — The engine should be provided with a gov* 
ernor to regulate its speed, a lubricator to oil valve and piston, 
and a sufficient number of oil ciips, so that all bearings may be 
properly oiled. 

Starting the Engine. — Before starting, all bearings should be 
supplied with oil, and all waste pipes connected with cylinder 
and steam-chest opened. The engine should then be started 
slowly, so as to allow the water to escape. A quantity of steam 
will always condense as it comes in contact with the cold 
cylinder-walls, in addition to the water already present in the 
steam-pipe. This water does not pass off as readily as steam, 
neither can it be compressed to any great extent. Therefore, 
if more water be present in the cylinder than will fill the clear- 
ance space, and this water not be allowed to escape, the piston 
moving towards the end of its stroke will strike the water, and 
consequently be compelled to stop. The greater the speed of 
the piston as it advances, the greater the force with which it 
strikes the water, resulting in many cases in a broken cylinder 
bead. 



290 DAIRTIN^G. 

It is well to have a waste-pipe connected to the steam-pipe at 
a point just above the engine- valve, in order that the water 
which has collected in the steam pipe may be blown out before 
opening the steam-valve. 

After the engine has been in operation for a minute or two 
the waste-valves should be closed. 

Horse-power. — The horse-power of an engine may be calcu- 
lated by means of the following formula: 

H. P. = ^^'"' 



33000 

H. P. = horse power; 

P = mean effective pressure in the cylinder; 
Z = twice the length of the stroke, in feet; 
a = area of piston in square inches; 
n = number of revolutions per minute. 

OX Tlli] PllESEIlVATION OF MILK AND CRKAM 
BY HKAT. 

By Dr. H. L. Russell, of Wisconsin Experiment Station, 
Author of " Dairy Bacteriology'". 

On account of the innumerable bacteria that gain access 
to milk during the process of milking, and subsequent to 
that time, and the rapid increase of the same in this nutri- 
tious fluid, this material universally undergoes fermentative 
changes, the rapidity of which is largely dependent upon 
the surrounding temperature. To increase the keeping 
quality of milk, it is necessary to annihilate these bacteria 
or keep them under influences unfavorable to their growth. 

Heat has been found to be the most efficacious agent in 
preserving milk in its natural condition. It is applied in 
two ways, viz., i. Pasteurization, where the milk or cream 
is heated for a short time (20-30 min.) at a temperature near 
the coagulating point of the proteid constituents of the milk 
(i50°-i6o° F.). 2. Sterilization, where the temperature ap- 
proximates or exceeds the boiling-point and is applied for 
a longer time. 

The object in both cases is to kJlJ the bacteria present in 
the milk. 



CREAM. 291 

Sterilization accomplishes this most successfully, but it 
changes the proteid compounds so that the milk has an un- 
desirable " cooked " flavor and odor. 

This defect is not found in pasteurized milk, and if prop- 
erly handled, milk treated by this process will remain sweet 
from 4 to 8 days. 

For use in the near future the pasteurized product is, on 
the whole, the most satisfactory ; the sterilized material being 
best adapted for export purposes. 

The essential condition in pasteurization is that the pas- 
teurizing temperature shall exceed the thermal death point 
(the temperature at which growing bacteria are destroyed) 
of disease-producing as well as fermentative bacteria. This 
temperature for most forms is about 140° F., but certain dis- 
ease organisms like the tubeicle germ of tuberculosis is not 
killed below 149" F. for 30 minutes, or 155° F. for 15 minutes. 
As this germ is often found in milk from tuberculous cows, 
prudence dictates the use of this temperature as a standard 
for the pasteurization of milk and cream. The proteids in 
the milk are slightly affected at this temperature, but if the 
milk is thoroughly chilled, the " cooked " flavor disappears. 

The application of this temperature kills only the growing 
bacteria, and does not affect the latent spores. If after 
being heated the milk is allowed to cool slowly, and is left 
at a comparatively warm temperature (exceeding 55° F.), 
these spores germinate and soon change the character of the 
milk, so that the value of the heating process is lost. To be 
efficient, it is necessary to rapidly cool the pasteurized prod- 
uct below the germinating point of the spores, for if they are 
once allowed to sprout, they will develop slowly at a very 
low temperature. 

In pasteurizing milk or cream, the apparatus should be 
constructed so that a definite quantity of the fluid can be 
held at any desired temperature for any length of time, and 
during the process protected from infection from the air. 
The apparatus must also be made so as to be easily cleaned 
and thoroughly sterilized by steam throughout. The milk 
must be protected from air infection during its withdrawal 
from the pasteurizing vat into storage vessels (cans and 



292 DAIRYING. 

bottles), and should be thoroughly chilled in a refrigerator 
for several hours (better over night) before being delivered 
to the consumer. This chilling process should succeed the 
heating operation as quickly as possible, as the sudden 
transition in temperature from 155° F. to 55° F. or less has 
a paralyzing effect on the development of those organisms 
(spores) that are not killed by the heat. The machines that 
have been put on the market have for the most part been 
designed primarily from the dairyman's standpoint, and 
while they fulfill their requirements as to capacity, cheap- 
ness, etc., yet they cannot in general be relied upon to treat 
the milk in a way so as to free it with certainty from all pos- 
sible disease-producing bacteria. The Potts' Pasteurizer, 
which has been sold quite extensively in this country during 
late years, may, however, be considered an entirely satis- 
factory and practical machine. 

Pasteurization in this country is applied with great suc- 
cess to milk and cream where these products are used in 
the liquid form. It is used to some extent in this country, 
but much more widely in continental Europe, in the prepara- 
tion of cream for the manufacture of butter by the use of a 
pure culture-starter. It can also be used advantageously 
in the hot months for increasing the length of time that 
by-products of the factory like skim-milk and whey may be 
preserved. 

Pasteurization, as well as sterilization, reduces the body, 
consistency, of milk and cream, and these products therefore 
seem thinner after having been subjected to the process oi 
heating than before. To obviate this. Dr. Babcock and 
the writer in 1896 recommended the addition of a smali 
quantity of a solution of sucrate of lime (" viscogen ") to 
the milk or cream, which will restore the consistency of the 
products, and in case of cream, greatly increase its whip- 
ping quality. (See Bull. No. 54 or thirteenth report cl 
Wisconsin Experiment Station.) 



CREAM. 293 

DIRECTIONS FOR THE STERILIZATIO^f OF MILK. 

(U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.) 

The sterilization of milk for children, now quite exten- 
sively practised in order to destroy the injurious germs 
which it may contain, can be satisfactorily accomplished 
with very simple apparatus. The vessel containing the 
milk, which may be the bottle from which it is to be used 
or any other suitable vessel, is placed inside of a larger 
vessel of metal, which contains the water. If a bottle, it is 
plugged with absorbent cotton, if this is at hand, or in its 
absence, other clean cotton will answer. A small fruit-jar 
loosely covered may be used instead of a bottle. The re- 
quirements are simply that the interior vessel shall be raised 
about half an inch above the bottom of the other, and that 
the water shall reach nearly or quite as high as the milk. 
The apparatus is then heated on a range or stove until the 
water reaches a temperature of 155 degrees Fahrenheit, 
when it is removed from the heat and kept tightly covered 
for half an hour. The milk-bottles are then taken out and 
kept in a cool place. The milk may be used any time within 
twenty-four, hours. A temperature of 150 degrees main- 
tained for half an hour is sufficient to destroy any germs 
likely to be present in the milk, and it is found in practice 
that raising the temperature to 155 degrees and then allow- 
ing it to stand in the heated water for half an hour insures 
the proper temperature for the required time. The tempera- 
ture should not be raised above 155 degrees, otherwise the 
taste and quality of the milk will be impaired. 

The simplest plan is to take a tin pail and invert a per- 
forated tin pie-plate in the bottom, or have made for it a 
removable false bottom perforated with holes and having 
legs half an inch high to allow circulation of the water. 
The milk-bottle is set on this false bottom, and sufficient 
water is put into the pail to reach the level of the surface 
of the milk in the bottle. A hole may be punched in the 
cover of the pail, a cork inserted, and a chemical thermom 
eter put through the cork, so that the bulb dips into the 
water. The temperature can thus be watched without re- 



294 DAIRYING. 

moving the cover. If preferred an ordinary dairy ther- 
mometer may be used and the temperature tested from time 
to time by removing the lid. This is very easily arranged, 
and is just as satisfactory as the patented apparatus sold 
for the same purpose. 

QUANTITY OF WATER OR ICE REQUIRED FOR 
COOLING MILK OR CREAM. (Martiny.) 

The quantity of water or ice required to cool milk or 
cream may be calculated from the following formulas, where 

M = quantity of milk or cream to be cooled, in lbs. 

/ = its temperature. 
W = quantity of water reCJuired for cooling, in lbs. 

/= " " ice " " " " " 

/' = temperature of water or ice at beginning. 

T= end temperature of cooled milk or cream. 

r = end temperature of cooling water. 

S = specific heat of milk (.95*) or of cream (.92*). 
79.25 = latent heat of water. 

(a) Water required for cooling milk or cream — 

1. Cooled in tin cans holding milk or cream to be cooled: 

rxr (^^-^ - MT)S 
T- t' 

2. By application of coolers and running water: 

T — t' 

{b) Ice required for cooling milk or cream — 
{Mt - MT)S 



/ = 



T-^f X 79-25 



In these formulas the influence of the surrounding air is 
not considered. 

* Figures subject to variations ; in practice the sp. heat of both uuiK «*iid 
cream may be assumed = i. — W. 



BUTTER. 295 



IV. BUTTER. 

BUTTER-MAKING. 

By H. B. GuRLER, De Kalb, 111., ex-President 111. State Dairymen's Assn., 
Author of " American Dairying." 

Butter is made from milk. The cow manufactures the 
milk from the food she eats, hence the necessity of sound 
food. Unsound food makes off-flavored milk and poor 
butter. Some cows can manufacture food into milk at a 
profit, others cannot; hence the necessity of knowing the 
individuality of each cow, or her ability to work at a profit 
to her owner. 

At this stage of the dairy work there is no excuse for a 
dairyman not knowing what each and every cow is doing 
for him, thus being able to "weed out" the unprofitable 
ones. 

Be careful and cleanly in milking. Remove the milk to 
a pure atmosphere as soon as drawn from the cows. If the 
cream is raised by gravity process be careful of the sur- 
roundings, as milk will absorb bad odors from decayed 
vegetables, the hog-pen, the cow-yard, the kerosene-can, a 
filthy stable, from cooking in the kitchen, and various other 
sources. 

When milk is put through the separator as soon as it is 
drawn from the cow this source of danger is removed. 
Cream from the separator should be cooled immediately to 
a temperature of 60°; 55° is better. A cooler that will 
a?rate at the same time it is cooling is very desirable. This 
is a vital point which many butter-makers stumble over. 
When through separating and cooling, temper the cream to 
the temperature necessary to have it ripen at the time you 
wish to churn. If it is to be churned the following day this 
temperature should be 65°-7o°. If the second day, 55-60°; 
and if it is to stand four to seven days, cool to 40 , if possi- 



296 DAIEYING. 

ble, as soon as practicable, and hold at that temperature 
until the day before you wish to churn, when it should be 
warmed to a temperature that will give the right acidity by 
the time you wish to churn. This temperature will depend 
on the kind of cream, whether separator cream or cream 
from some gravity process. Cream from shallow setting 
may be sufficiently ripened when taken from the milk. I 
recommend the use of Prof. Farrington's acid tablets for 
testing the acidity of cream (see p. 270). They are a great 
help to a beginner. 

Churn at as low a temperature as you can. This will de- 
pend on the per cent of fat in the cream. Rich cream can 
be churned at a much lower temperature than cream poor 
in fat. Cream from deep, cold setting may be churned at 
58° to 62°; and thick, rich cream from shallow setting at 
a much lower temperature. An ironclad rule cannot be 
made that will fit all casqs. The separator will give cream 
containing various per cent of fat, from 15 to 40 per cent. 
Separator cream containing 15 per cent fat will need to be 
churned at about the same temperature as deep, cold setting 
cream. Separator cream containing 40 per cent can be 
churned at a temperature of 50"", can be gathered at 50", so 
the buttermilk will draw at that temperature. A low tem- 
perature gives the most exhaustive churning. At this tem- 
perature the buttermilk should contain no more fat than 
the average separator skim-milk. Cream containing a large 
per cent of fat does not develop acid as fast as cream with 
more milk in it. Cool cream for churning about two hours 
before, so as to let the butter-fat have time to solidify or 
harden. This gives a more waxy texture to the butter. 

Stop the churn when the butter granules are the size of 
wheat. If the granules are too small there is danger of a 
loss from its passing through the strainer. Wash no more 
than is necessary to remove the buttermilk. The colder it 
is churned the less washing is needed. When butter gathers 
at 54° one washing is sufficient ; if at 62° to 64°, two or 
three washings will be needed. Washing removes some 
of the delicate flavor or aroma. Remove the water from 
the churn as soon as possible — as soon as it has done its 



BUTTER. 297 

work. Never allow it to lie and soak unless there is no 
other way of hardening the butter to a temperature where 
you can handle it. 

Salt to suit your trade. Work once or twice, as you pre- 
fer; twice working is preTerable, as it makes the nicer-ap- 
pearing butter. Work just enough to remove the mottled 
or streaked appearance. When worked twice this can be 
told at the time by the appearance of the butter. When 
worked but once it cannot be told until the butter has stood 
long enough for the salt to dissolve. If worked but once 
examine the butter the following day, until you make your- 
self a rule of thumb to work by. I have found this neces- 
sary. I am compelled to look after this point in my 
creamery work when the butter is worked but once. Use 
the kind of butter-package that suits your trade, but always 
let it be neat. Never send a mussy-looking package to 
market. You cannot afford to do it. 

ON THE USE OF PURE CUIiTUKES IN BUTTEK- 
AND CHEESE MAKING. 

The ripening of cream is brought about through the action 
of minute plants, so-called bacteiia. These are practically 
omnipresent where man lives, and get into the milk during 
the milking and the handling of the milk and cream in the 
dairy. They multiply enormously in the cream during the 
ripening process, owing to the very favorable conditions of 
life which they find there. Some forms of bacteria are de- 
sirable and even essential in the manufacture of sour-cream 
butter; these feed largely on the milk-sugar of the cream, 
and decompose this component into lactic acid, which is the 
characteristic acid of sour cream (as well as of sour milk). 
Along with this formation of lactic acid in the cream other 
complicated, and yet but little understood, decomposition 
processes take place, the results of which show themselves in 
the fine aromatic flavor of the butter produced. Other forms of 
bacteria cause obnoxious fermentations in the cream, and produce 
a butter of "off" flavor, in aggravated cases making the product 
unfit to eat or at least unsalable as a first-class article. The 



298 DAIRYING. 

process of sour-cream butter-making is therefore, at the bottom, 
a question of keeping the fermentations during the ripening of 
the cream in the right track, of controlHng the same so as to 
exclude all but lactic-acid-producing bacteria. The old 
original way of reaching this end was to allow the cream 
to sour spontaneously, trusting to luck to obtain the desired 
fermentation of the cream by leaving it standing in a warm 
room for a couple of days. Later on, a buttermilk starter 
from a preceding churning or a skim-milk starter was added 
for the purpose of ripening the cream ; by this means 
the lactic-acid bacteria contained in the starter were intro- 
duced in such large numbers that they generally were able to 
crowd out other kinds of bacteria that might be found in the 
cream, and which, if left alone, would produce undesirable 
fermentations in the cream and bad flavor in the butter. 
The next step in advance was the introduction of pure 
cultures of lactic-acid bacteria; these consist of one or a 
few forms of bacteria, and when introduced in milk or 
cream will be apt to overpower all other forms of bacteria 
therein, and thus produce the pure mild flavor of sour- 
cream butter desired. 

The honor of having first introduced pure cultures in 
butter-making belongs to Dr. V. Storch, the chemist of 
the Danish state experiment station in Copenhagen; the 
bulletin describing Dr. Storch's investigations of this 
subject, "On the Ripening of Cream," was published in 
1890. Other bacteriologists in Europe and in this country 
have worked along this same line, and as a result we find 
that pure cultures are at the present time used almost 
universally in the manufacture of sour-cream butter in 
the creameries and dairies of northern Europe, and also 
in this country their use has become general and is spread- 
ing. The expected result of adding a pure culture-starter, 
viz., that of excluding all undesirable fermentations in 
the ripening of the cream, will not, however, follow with 
any certainty unless the seeding with the pure culture 
is preceded by pasteurization or sterilization of the cream, 
that is, at least a partial destruction of the bacteria already 
found therein. In Europe, notably in Denmark and the 



BUTTER. 299 

other Scandinavian countries, pasteurization cf the milk (or 
of the cream) is practised regularly in all the best creameries, 
in the former country at present in perhaps 95 per cent of the 
creameries in operation. In this country the firms manufactur- 
ing and selling pure cultures unfortunately did not insist on 
this point at the start, and where pure culture-starters were used 
with us it was nearly always without previous pasteurization. 
One reason why pasteurization has not been generally adopted 
in the manufacture of butter in this country is that the market 
demands a higher flavored, "stronger" butter than is wanted 
by the European market, and the pure cultures on the market, 
when used with pasteurized cream, do not produce such a butter. 
T le expense of pasteurization of the cream and the absence of 
proper apparatus, or non-introduction of such as have proved 
successful in European practice, furthermore tend to explain 
why our butter-makers do not generally pasteurize the cream 
in using pure culture-starters. During late years, however, 
p isteurization of cream has become more general in American 
creameries. 

The five pure cultures now on the market in this country are 
Chr. Hansen's Lactic Ferment (Chr. Hansen's Laboratory, Little 
Falls, N. Y.), Ericsson Butter Culture (Elov. Ericsson, St. Paul, 
Minn.), Flavorone (Parke, Davis & Co., Detroit, Mich.), Elgin 
Butter Culture (Creamery Pkg. Mfg. Co., Chicago, 111.), and the 
Boston Butter Culture (O. Douglas Improved Boston Butter Cul- 
ture Co., Boston, Mass.). These cultures are placed on the 
market in dry form as a powder, or in liquid form. Directions 
for their use accompany each package sold. In general, the 
method to be followed is to seed the culture in a quantity of 
sterilized skim-milk or cream; this is kept for one to two days at 
a temperature below 90°; about 5 per cent, of the starter is then 
added and mixed with the cream to be ripened; some makers 
add considerably more than this amount. The cream will be 
ready for churning the next day. A portion of the starter 
prepared is used for the see ling of a new lot of sterilized 
skim-milk which will make the starter for the following day, 
and the same process is continued until deterioration of the 
starter sets in, as shown by lack of flavor in the ripened cream 
and in the butter; a fresh batch is then prepared from a new 



300 DAIRTIKG. 

package of ferment. If proper care in sterilizing the skim-milk 
and in handling the starter is taken, the pure culture may be 
propagated in this manner for months. With lack of cleanliness 
and care it must be renewed every other week or oftener. 

While the use of pure cultures has not as yet become 
general in American creameries, the agitation caused by 
their introduction and the discussions in dairy papers and 
dairy meetings which they have brought about have doubt- 
less been of great benefit to our dairy industry in empha- 
sizing in the minds of butter-makers the necessity of 
thorough cleanliness in the creamery and the importance 
of the proper conduct of the ripening process for the 
manufacture of high-grade butter. They have enabled us 
to make butter of uniform fine flavor and of greater keep- 
ing quality than was previously possible. 

Where abnormal fermentations appear, and the butter 
produced is diseased or "off flavor," the evil may be 
remedied by the use of pure cultures. In case of the estab- 
lishment of an export trade of American butter of high 
quality, the pure cultures used in connection with previous 
pasteurization of the milk or cream will prove of great 
benefit, insuring uniform goods and perfect keeping quality 
in the product. 

The use of pure culture-starters in the manufacture of 
Cheddar cheese is of recent date, and but limited experience 
has so far been gained in this line. According to the 
testimony of some of our leading cheese-makers, and of 
recent experiments conducted at Wisconsin experiment 
station, their use for this purpose is very beneficial, cheese 
of improved, clean flavor and high keeping qualities being 
produced. Pure cultures may therefore be safely recom- 
m.ended lor this purpose. The general method of applica- 
tion is similar to that followed in the manufacture of pure 
culture butter. The starter is propagated in sterilized 
milk and kept at 90° F. for one day, when it will be slightly 
lobbered, having an acidity of about .8 per cent. Prof. 
Decker, late of the Wisconsin Dairy School, gives the fol- 
lowing hints on the use of the starter by the cheese-maker : 

"The starter is introduced into the milk by rubbing it 



BUTTER. 301 

through a fine hair sieve so as to break up curd particles. If 
too large quantities of starter are used, there is a tendency to 
produce a sour cheese. The best results are obtained when a 2 
per cent starter, of the acidity given, is added. 

"In propagating the starter from day to day care must be 
taken to keep it free from contamination. It should always be 
prepared in a covered vessel that has previously been sterilized, 
and the milk used should first be pasteurized (or sterilized) and 
cooled before adding the 'seed.' Some of the original starter 
should be taken for 'seed/ not the whole milk after the starter 
has been added. 

'• The starter cannot be used for cheese-making if the milk 
is overripe, which is the case when the rennet test is 65 
seconds or under (see p. 282). In sweet milk, testing by 
the rennet test 120 seconds, the addition of a 2 per cent 
starter will increase the acidity, so that the rennet test will 
act in 70 seconds. 

*' With sweet milk the use of a pure lactic starter will 
result in the saving of 3-5 hours in time. With tainted 
milk in which the acid develops imperfectly the addition 
of the starter aids in producing the acidity required for the 
manufacture of Cheddar cheese." 

BOYD'S PROCESS OF CREAM RIPENING. 

By John Boyd, Chicago, 111. 

It is an accepted fact that the fine aromatic flavor and 
also the keeping properties of butter depend largely upon 
the treatment of the cream from the time it is separated 
from the milk until it is ready for the churn, that is, in 
the best possible condition to yield the maximum quantity 
and the best quality as to flavor, texture, solidity, etc., 
free from casein and other undesirable substances. This 
perfect condition of cream is understood by the term 
" ripened cream," and when this condition can be pro- 
duced by the butter-maker with uniformity, regardless of 
the seasons of the year or extremes of climate, the process 
may be reckoned as nearly perfect as possible, and not 
until then. It is most desirable that the process be as sim- 



302 DAIRYING. 

pie as possible, in fact within the reach of every creamery 
and dairyman in the country, and all the means required to 
attain these results can and should be a part of every dairy 
and creamery, large or small. 

Boyd's process or system of ripening cream or milk is 
the result of years of practical work in a private dairy of 
about 40 Jersey cows. After it had been thoroughly tested 
and used, during all the seasons of the year, it was pat- 
ented in the United States, Canada, and Great Britain, 
and given to the public in the year 1889, a very consider- 
able time in advance of any of the artificial methods of 
ripening, now being advocated under the representations 
of " pure cultures of bacteria." 

When first introduced it was met by a sea of opposition 
from the experts, who would see nothing good in it, but 
gradually it has been making its way in a quiet manner 
into popularity until at present it is being successfully 
practised in every state in the Union, and is gaining favor 
every day with the most practical butter-makers. 

The apparatus necessary to practise the process supplies 
all the conditions required to produce a uniform result every 
day in the year, the temperature of the lactive ferment 
and also of the cream being entirely under the control of 
the operator during the entire process. 

The directions for using the process, which go with every 
purchase of the apparatus, are as follows: 

To ?riake the Best Ferment. — Take milk from fresh-milk- 
ing cows (that from pregnant cows will not answer); sub- 
merge the milk warm from the cows in Cooley cans in ice 
water. Skim at twelve or twenty-four hours, as most con- 
venient, and use this skimmed milk for making the fer- 
ment; or select milk as above, run it through a separator, 
and save the skimmed milk for making the ferment. 

The skimmed milk so selected is then brought to a tem- 
perature of go°, in a water bath, being constantly stirred 
during the operation of heating. As soon as the tempera- 
ture of the milk reaches 90°, place it in the fermenting-can 
and close the cover tightly, having first rinsed out the can 
with warm water. Allow the can to remain closed for 



BUTTER. 303 

iwenty or twenty-four hours, when the ferment will be 
found thick and in the proper condition for mixing with 
the cream or milk to be ripened. 

How to use the Ferment. — First bring the cream or milk 
in the vat to a temperature of 66° to 70° Fahrenheit, when 
the ferment is to be thoroughly mixed with the cream or 
milk in the proportion of 2 per cent of the ferment to the 
amount of cream or milk to be ripened. Remove one or 
two inches of the top of the ferment, which is not desirable 
to use, and strain the rest through a fine strainer or hair 
sieve into the milk or cream. The finer the ferment is 
broken up the more effective its operation will be. After 
the cream or milk and ferment are well stirred and mixed 
at the above temperature, the vat must be closed and al- 
lowed to remain undisturbed until the cream is ripened, 
requiring from twenty to twenty-four hours for the opera- 
tion; the cream when ripe will be found thick, mildly acid, 
and in the proper chemical condition, requiring only to be 
cooled to the proper temperature for churning. 

Churning. — The best temperature for churning depends 
ro much upon circumstances that the range is very wide, 
from 55° to 68° Fahrenheit. The richer the cream in but- 
ter-fat the colder the temperature should be, and the more 
itnilk the cream contains the higher the churning tempera- 
ture should be. After the cream or milk and ferment are 
mixed, no more stirring is admissible, as any agitation of 
the cream afterwards retards the ripening process. 

Butter by Shallow-pan Creaming. — Raise the cream in a 
I'.emperature of about 60° F. ; avoid as much as possible 
'Skimming milk in with the cream; ripen at about 65° F. ; 
ohurn at 60° to 62°. Free the granules of butter from the 
buttermilk by washing in water, temperature about 55°. 
Salt, I oz. to I lb. of butter. 

Butter by Deep Cold Setting and Cooley System. — Raise the 
cream in ice-water; milk may be skimmed in with the 
cream or not as desired; with the Cooley cream a very 
considerable portion of milk added to the cream will pro- 
duce no bad effects. Ripen at a temperature of 68° by 
adding lactive ferment; churn at temperature of 58° to 65°; 



304 DAIETING. 

wash the granules in water, temperature 50° to 55°, and 
salt as above. 

Butter fro7n Separator Cream. — Cool the cream from sep- 
arator to 66° to 68°, add lactive ferment, and churn at 55" to 
58°, according to the percentage of butter-fat in the cream. 
The cream should be cooled after ripening so that the 
temperature of the cream will register not over 55°. This 
cooling requires time and patience, but will be rewarded 
with solid granules. Wash in water at 50° to 52°. Salt, 
I oz. to I lb. of butter. 

Good butter should not contain more than 16^ of water 
(and may contain as little as 8^) when properly worked. 
It is sufficiently worked when it presents a delicate elastic- 
ity to the touch, and when broken should show a perfect 
uniformity of grain and color. 

THE ALKALINE TABLET TEST OF ACIDITY IN 
MILK OK CREAM.* 

By Prof. E. H. Farrington, of Wisconsin Dairy School. 

This test is now extensively used by persons interested in 
either one or all of the dairy products: milk, cream, butter, and 
cheese. It shows the extent to which acidity has developed in 
a given sample and gives this information quickly. Briefly 
stated, it may be used for the following purposes: 

First. — For testing the acidity of milk. To detect those 
lots which are apparently sweet, but too nearly sour for pasteur- 
izing, for retailing, or for making the best butter or cheese. 

Second. — For testing the acidity of each lot of cream dur- 
ing its ripening, to trace the progress of its souring, and to show 
whether the fermentations should be hastened or checked in 
order to have the cream in a certain acid condition at a given 
time and ready for churning. 

Rapid Method of Testing Many Lots of Milk. — In addi ion to 
the tablets, the only apparatus necessary for testing the acidity 
of either milk or cream is a common white teacup, a 4, 6, or 8 
oz. bottle, and a No. 10 brass cartridge shell or similar measure. 
The testing solution is prepared by dissolving one tablet in one 
ounce of water. This is the standard solution. Four ounces of 

* For a more detailed discussion of the alkaline tablet test, see Far^ 
rington-Woll, Testing Milk and its Products, iSth Ed., pp. 118-1.-53. 



BUTTER. 305 

the tablet solution are made by filling a four-ounce bottle with 
water and adding to it four tablets. The No. lo shell is filled 
with the milk or cream to be tested. This measured quantity 
is poured into a white cup. The same measure is then filled with 
the tablet solution and this is poured into the cup. The two 
liquids are thoroughly mixed, and the color of the mixture is 
noted. If there is no change of color, another measure of tablet 
solution is added. This is continued until the sample which 
is being tested retains a pink color. As soon as the pink color 
is obtained no more tablet solution is added. The per cent of 
acid in the sample tested is found from the number of measures 
of tablet solution it is necessary to add to one measure of the 
milk or cream sample in order to produce the pink color. Each 
measure of tablet solution represents one-tenth of one per cent 
acid when tests are made in this way. 

The Most Delicate Method. — A more exact testing of acidity 
can be made by using a 17.6-cc. pipette for measuring the milk 
or cream to be tested and a loo-cc. graduated cylinder for measur- 
ing the tablet solution. 

Five tablets are dissolved in 97 cc. of water in the cylinder, 
and this solution is gradually poured into the 17.6 cc. of milk or 
cream in a white cup. When sufficient tablet solution has been 
added to produce the pink color in the sample tested, the operator 
observes on the scale oif the graduated cylinder the number of 
cc. tablet solution used. Each cc. of this tablet solution is equal 
to 0.0090 gr. lactic acid, and when 17.6 cc. of a sample is tested, 
each cc. of the tablet solution is equal to .01 per cent acid in the 
sample. The per cent of acid in each sample is therefore indi- 
cated by the amount of tablet solution used in each case. 

Milk does not smell or taste sour until it contains about three- 
tenths of one per cent acid. It has been found, however, that 
milk containing over two-tenths per cent acid cannot be safely 
pasteurized, because such milk sours very soon. These tablets 
supply a quick means of sorting different lots of sweet milk, by 
showing which contain less and which more than two-tenths of 
one per cent acid. 

Cream is often ripened so far that the quality of the butter 
is injured. The usual method of the butter-maker for testing 



306 DAIRTIN-Q. 

the sourness of the cream is by the sense of smell and taste. A 
tablet test shows exactly what per cent of acid each lot of cream 
contains, so that the butter-maker is better able to manufacture a 
uniform grade of butter by always ripening his cream to the same 
point before it is churned. Sweet cream contains about 0.15% 
acid. Cream has reached the proper point for churnmg when it 
contains about six-tenths per cent acid. As the souring of cream 
is largely influenced by the temperature at which it is held, the 
butter-maker is able to know from an acid test of the cream 
whether it should be warmed or cooled in order to have it ready 
for churning at a given time and just sour enough for making 
butter of good flavor (see page 2756). 

Cheese-makers are beginning to use this test as a substitute 
for the hot-iron and other tests, because of the exactness with 
which it shows the acidity of the milk, the whey, and the curd. 

DIRECTIONS FOR THE USE OF MANNS' TEST 

FOR ASCERTAINING THE ACIDITY OF 

CREA3I. 

1. Stir the cream thoroughly; insert small end of pipette 
in cream and draw until nearly full; then put the finger over 
upper end of pipette and allow cream to escape slowly (by 
admitting air) until mark on neck of pipette is reached. 
Transfer to a tumbler, rinse the pipette three times with 
lukewarm water, adding the rinsing water to the cream in 
the tumbler. Now add to contents of the tumbler three 
drops of the solution marked " Indicator" (phenolphtalein). 

2. Fill the burette up to the o mark with the solution 
marked " Neutralizer" (alkali solution). 

3. While constantly stirring the cream with the glass rod, 
allow the liquid to flow from the burette into the tumbler 
until the entire contents of the tumbler shows a pink tinge. 
Stop adding the solution from the burette the moment the 
color is permanent. 

4. Read the level of the liquid remaining in the burette. 
The reading shows the amount of acid present. 

The experience of those using the test indicates that 
where the acidity of the cream is right, to secure the best 
results in yield and flavor of butter, from 38 to 42 cc. of the 
neutralizer v\iii be required for the test. It is a simple 



BUTTER. 






matter for each butter maker to learn by experiment the 
exact degree of acidity and churning temperature suited to 
the best results, and with these as standards reduce the 
process of butter-making to a certainty. By testing his 
cream in the afternoon the butter-maker will be able to set 
it to ripen at such a temperature that it will show the proper 
acidity for churning next morning. 

In testing the milk for cheese-making the same directions 
are to be followed, excepting that a much less acid condition 
is required; probably 15-20 cc. will give the best results. 
The whole numbers are cubic centimeters; the intermediate 
divisions are fractions of a cubic centimeter. 

Precautions in Using the Test. — The solution marked "Neu- 
tralizer" is prepared of a certain strength. It is essentia; 
that this strength remain constant. Never let this solution 
stand without a stopper. Keep in glass or stoneware. 

PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION OP BUTTER. (Konig.) 





Aver- 
age. 


Mini- 
mum. 


Maxi- 
mum. 


Sweet 
Cream 
Butter. 


Sour 
Cream 

Butter. 


No. of analyses included. .. . 


351 

13.45 

83-70 

.76 

.50 

. 12 

1-59 






lO 

12.93 

84-53 

.61 

.68 

1.25 


1 1 


Water. 


4-15 

69.96 

.19 

! -45 

.02 


35-12 

90.92 

4-78 

1.63 

15.08 


13.08 


Fat 


84.26 
.81 




Milk sugar 


.66 


Lactic acid. . . . 




Ash 









AVERAGE CHEMICAL. COMPOSITION OF SWEET 
CREAM- AND SOUR CREAM-BUTTER. 

(Fleischmann.) 





Made from Sweet 
Cream, not Salted. 


Made from Sour 
Cream, Salted. 




Not 
washed. 


Washed. 


Not 
washed. 


Washed. 


Water 


Per ct. 

15.00 

83-47 

.60 

.80 

-13 


Per ct. 

15.00 

83-73 

•55 

.60 

. 12 


Per ct. 

12.00 

84 -75 

.50 

-55 

2.20 


Per ct. 

84.62 
.48 
.40 


Fat .. . 


Casein and albumen ... 

Other organic substances 







308 



DAIRYING. 



ANALYSES OF PREMIUM BUTTERS, FAT-STOCK 
SHOW, CHICAGO, 1889.— IN PER CENT. (Morrow.) 



Description of Samples. 



Sweepstakes — Creamery, gathered cream 

" " whole milk 

" Dairy 

" From a grade cow 

First prize — From a Jersey cow 

" " From a Shorthorn cow 

" " From an Ayrshire cow 

" " From a Devon cow 

" " From a Holstein cow 

A verage 



* 










V 
















u 


V 




•a 


H 


^ 


U 


06 


9-99 


85.41 


1. 01 


Q4 


12.19 


82 66 


1. 21 


Q^ 


8.49 


86.53 


.86 


QS.S 


9.71 


8s 


90 


1.03 


91 


8.99 


88 


08 


■79 


Qi 


12.07 


84 


79 


1.34 


Q^ 


9-53 


8b 


S3 


.81 


By 


10.78 


86 


20 


.72 


92 -5 


10.56 


85-53 


.88 


92.5 


10.23 


85 


74 


.96 



3-58 

3-93 

4.12 
;.29 
i-»3 
:-79 

3 32 
.29 

3 03 



ANALYSES OF FOREIGN SAMPLES OF BUTTER. 

(In Per Cent.) 



Country. 



No. of 
Anal- 
yses. 



Water, 



Fat. 



Curd. 



Ash 
(Salt). 



A. Salted Butter. 



Denmark 

Sweden ...... 

Finland 

Netherlands.. 
France 
Great Britain. 

Germany 

Italy 

Australia 

Canada 

United States. 



France 

Germany 

Great Britain. 

Austria 

Italy . ... .. 

Switzerland. . 
Australia 



55 


12.86 


83.78 


I. 21 


139 


14.13 


82.57 


.98 


2 


13-05 


84.11 


1.58 


4 


12.97 


84.13 


1.39 


235 


13-32 


84.48 


1-43 


322 


12.09 


84.66 


1.14 


162 


13-38 


83.70 


1-25 


6 


II S2 


85.56 


1.07 


59 


11.16 


85.32 


.96 


207 


8.97 


84.29 


1.44 


473 


H.44 


84.64 


1.02 



B. Unsalted Butter. 



Average for salted butter 

" " unsalted\)\x\.X.t.x . 



58 


13.73 


85.80 


1-39 


.c 


86 


12.03 


85.70 


3.15 




24 


13.43 


85.64 


.80 




5 


14-15 


84.14 


1-54 




53 


13-67 


85.08 


1. 11 




14 


13.76 


84.65 


1.55 




2 


10.63 


87.71 


1.38 




1676 


11.95 


84.27 


1.26 


2. 


242 


13.07 


85-24 


1-57 





2-15 

2.32 

1.26 
I-5I 

-77 
2. II 

1.67 
1.86 
2.56 
5-17 
2.90 



* The standard of the scale of points in a total of 100 was : Flavor, ^c 
grain, 30; color, 15 ; salting, lo. 



t Chiefly salt. 



BUTTER. 309 

COMMERCIALi GRADES OF BUTTER. 

(New York Mercantile Exchange ) 

Extras. 

Shall be composed of the highest grades of butter made in the 
season when offered under the different classifications; 90 per 
cent, shall be up to the following standard. The balance shall 
not grade below Firsts. 

■Flavor. — Must be fine, sweet, clean, and fresh if of current 
make, and fine, sweet, and clean, if held. 

Body. — Must be firm, smooth, and uniform. 

Color. — A hght straw shade, even and uniform. 

Salt. — Medium salted. 

Package. — Good, unifonn, and clean. 

Score. — Shall average 93 points, or higher. 

Firsts. 

Shall be a grade just below Extras, and must be fine butter for 
the season when made and offered under the different classifica- 
tions, and up to the following standard: 

Flavor. — Must be good, sweet, clean, and fresh if of current 
make, and good, sweet, and clean, if held. 

Body. — Good and uniform. 

Color. — Reasonably uniform. Neither too high nor too light. 

Salt. — Medium salted. 

Package. — Good and uniform. 

Score. — Shall avesage 87 points, or higher. 

Seconds. 

Shall be a grade just below Firsts and must be good for the 
season when offered under the different classifications and up 
to the following standard: 

Flavor. — Must be reasonably good and sweet. 

Body. — If creamery or dairy, must be solid boring. If fac- 
tory or renovated, must be 90 per cent, solid boring. 



310 DAIRYING. 

Color. — Fairly uniform. 

Salt. — May be high, medium, or light salted. 

Package. — Good and uniform. 

Score. — Shall average 80 points, or higher. 
Thirds. 

Shall be a grade just below Seconds. 

Flavor. — Must be reasonably good; may be strong on tops 
and sides. 

Body. — Fair boring, if creamery or dairy, and at least 50 pe» 
cent, boring a full trier, if factory or renovated. 

Color. — May be irregular. 

Salt. — High, light, or irregular. 

Package. — Fairly uniform. 

Score. — Shall average 75 points, or higher. 

Fourths. 
Shall be a grade just below thirds, and may consist of pre • 
miscuous lots. 

Flavor. — May be ofT flavored, and strong on tops and sides. 

Body. — Not required to draw a full trier. 

Color. — May be irregular. 

Salt. — High, light, or irregular. 

Package. — Any kind of package mentioned at time of sale. 

Packing Stock. 

No. I — Shall be original butter, without additional moisture 
or salt, sweet and sound, packed in large, new barrels, having a 
wooden head in each end, or in new tubs, both to be pq,rchment- 
paper lined, or a good uniform second-hand barrel having a 
wooden head in each end and parchment-paper lined. Barrels 
and tubs to be packed full. 

No. 2 — Shall be original butter, without additional salt or 
water, sweet and sound, and can be packed in promiscuous or 
different kind of barrels, tubs, or tierces, without being parchment- 
paper lined, and may be packed in either two-headed or cloth- 
covered barrels. 

No. 3. — Shall be of any grade or quality above grease, and 
packed in any and all kinds of packages. 

Charges for inspection shall be the same as the rules call for 
on other grades. 

Grease. 

Shall consist of all grades of butter below Fourths, free from 
adulteration. 



BUTTER. 



311 



FORMULA FOR CALiCULiATIXG THK YIELD OF 
BUTTER. 

In ordinary dairy or creamery practice, where modern 
methods of creaming and churning are applied, the yield 
of butter will exceed that of fat in the milk by 12 to 15 per 
cent, or i pound of fat in the milk will produce about 1.15 
pounds butter, i.e., yield of butter from 100 lbs. of milk = 
1. 15/, /being the per cent of fat in the milk. 

Flcischmanit's formula: 

Yield of butter =: 1.1.6/ — .25 

Conversion Factor for Calculating Yield of Butter from the 
Amount of Butter-fat. — The following resolution was passed 
by the Association of American Agricultural Colleges and 
Experiment Stations at the annual convention of the asso- 
ciation, July, 1895: 

" Resolved, That this association recommends to the 
several stations that the results of tests of dairy cows or 
herds be expressed in terms of butter-fat, and that when 
desirable to express these records in terms of approximate 
equivalent in butter such equivalent be computed by multi- 
plying the amount of butter-fat by i|." (Report of Curtiss, 
Armsby, and Cooke.) 

The factor i^ is based upon the results of th^ Columbian 
dairy test, in which it was found that 117. 3 lbs. of butter 
were, on the average, made from each 100 lbs. of butter-fat in 
the whole milk, and 96.67 lbs. of butter-fat of the milk was 
recovered in the butter. 

YIELD OF BUTTER FROM lOO POUNDS OF 
CREAM OF DIFFERENT RICHNESS. 

(Maktiny.) 



Per Ct. Fat 


Yield of 


Per Ct. Fat 


Yield of 


Per Ct. Fat 


Yield of 


in Cream 


Butter. 


i in Cream. 


Butter. 


in Cream. 


Butter. 




lbs. 


I 


lbs. 




lbs. 


IS 


15-7 


22 


23.0 


29 


30.3 


16 


16.7 


23 


24.0 


30 


31-4 


17 


17.7 


24 


25.1 


31 


32.4 


18 


18.8 


2.? 


26.1 


32 


?,z.s 


iQ 


19. g 


26 


27. 2 


ZZ 


34-5 


20 


21.0 


27 


28.2 


34 


35.5 


21 


22.0 


28 


29.3 


35 


36.6 



312 



DAIRYING. 



YIELD OF BUTTER CORRESPONDING TO YIELD 
OF BUTTER-FAT PER DAY AND PER WEEK, 

ill Pounds. 



Butter. 


Fat. 


Butter. 


Fat. 


Butter. 


Fat. 



A. Per Day. 



o 


35 


0.95 I 


II 


1.60 


1.87 


2.25 




41 


1. 00 I 


17 


1.65 


1-93 


2.30 




47 


1.05 I 


23 


1.70 


1.98 


2-35 




S3 


1 .10 1 


28 


1-75 


2.04 


2.40 




5« 


LIS I 


34 


1.80 


2.10 


2.45 




64 


1.20 I 


40 


1.85 


2.16 


2.50 




70 


1. 25 1 


4b 


1.90 


2.22 


2-55 




76 


1.30 1 


52 


1-95 


2.28 


2.60 




83 


1-35 I 


5a 


2.00 


2-33 


2.65 




8« 


1.40 I 


t>3 


2.05 


2.39 


2.70 




93 


1.45 1 


69 


2.10 


2-45 


2-75 




99 


1.50 I 


75 


2.15 


2-51 


2.80 


1 


05 


1.55 I 


81 


2.20 


2.57 


2.85 



B. Per Week. 



5. 00 


5-83 


7-50 


8.75 


10.00 


II .67 


12.50 


14.58 


5.10 


5-95 


7.60 


8.87 


10.10 


11.78 


12.60 


14.70 


5.20 


6.07 


7.70 


8.98 


10.20 


11.90 


12.70 


14.82 


5-3° 


6.18 


7.80 


9.10 


10.30 


12.02 


12.80 


14-93 


5-40 


6.30 


7.90 


9.22 


10 40 


12.13 


12.90 


15.05 


5-50 


6.42 


8.00 


9-33 


10.50 


12.25 


13.00 


15-17 


5.60 


6.53 


8.10 


9-45 


10.60 


12.37 


13. xo 


15.28 


5-70 


6.65 


8.20 


9.57 


10.70 


12.48 


13.20 


15.40 


5.80 


6.77 


8.30 


9.68 


10.80 


12. 60 


13-30 


15-52 


5 -90 


6.88 


8.40 


9.80 


10.90 


12.72 


13.40 


15-63 


6.00 


7.00 


8.50 


9.92 


11.00 


12.83 


13-50 


15-75 


6.10 


7.12 


8.60 


10.03 


11 .10 


12.95 


13.60 


15.87 


6.20 


723 


8.70 


10.15 


11.20 


13.07 


13 70 


15.98 


6.30 


7-35 


8.80 


10.27 


11.30 


13-18 


13.80 


16.10 


6.40 


7-47 


8.90 


10.38 


11.40 


13 30 


13.90 


16.22 


6.50 


7.58 


9.00 


10.50 


11.50 


13-42 


14.00 


16.33 


6.60 


7.70 


9.10 


10.62 


11.60 


13-53 


14.10 


16.45 


6.70 


7.82 


9-29 


10.73 


11.70 


1365 


14.20 


16.57 


6.80 


7-93 


9-3° 


10.85 


11.80 


13-77 


14.30 


16.68 


6.90 


8.05 


9.40 


10.97 


11.90 


13-88 


14.40 


16.80 


7.00 


8.17 


9.50 


11.08 


12.00 


14.00 


14-50 


16.92 


7.10 


8.28 


9.60 


11.20 


12.10 


14.12 


14.60 


17.03 


7.20 


8.40 


9.70 


11.32 


12.20 


14.23 


14.70 


17.15 


7-30 


8.52 


9.80 


"•43 


12.30 


14.35 


14.80 


17.27 


7.40 


8.63 


9.90 


"•55 


12.40 


14.47 


14.90 


17.38 



Fat. 


Butter. 


Fat. 


Butter. 


.01 


.01 


.06 


.07 


.02 


.02 


.07 


.08 


•03 


.04 


.08 


.09 


.04 


.05 


.09 


.11 


-05 


.06 


.10 

1 


.12 



BUTTER. 



313 



VALUE OF 



100«-100 



FOR SP. GR. OF MILK FROM 



1.019 TO 1.0399. 

(See p. 261.) 



Sp.g^r. 



.019 
.020 



1.022 
1 .023 
1.024 
1.025 
1.026 
1.027 
1.028 
1.029 
1.030 
1-031 
1.032 
1.033 
1.034 
1.035 
1.036 
1.037 
1.038 
1.039 



O.OQOO 


O.OOOI 


. 0002 


0.0003 


0.0004 


0.0005 


0.0006 


0.0007 


0.0008 


1.864 


1.874 


1.884 


1.894 


1.903 


1-9^3 


1.922 


1-932 


1.941 


I.Q61 


1.970 


1.980 


1.990 


1.999 


2.oog 


2.018 


2.028 


2.038 


2.057 


2.066 


2.076 


2.086 


2.095 


2.105 


2.114 


2.124 


2-133 


2.153 


2.162 


2.172 


2. 181 


2. 191 


2.200 


2.210 


2.220 


2.229 


2.249 


2.258 


2.267 


2.277 


2.286 


2.296 


2.306 


2-315 


2.325 


2-344 


2-353 


2.363 


2.372 


2.382 


2.391 


2.401 


2.410 


2.420 


2-439 


2.449 


2.458 


2.468 


2-477 


2.487 


2.496 


2.506 


2.515 


2.534 


2.544 


2-553 


2.563 


2-573 


2.582 


2.591 


2.601 


2.610 


2.629 


2.638 


2.648 


2.657 


2.667 


2.676 


2.686 


2.695 


2-705 


2.724 


2-733 


2-743 


2.752 


2.762 


2.771 


2.781 


2.790 


2.799 


2.818 


2.828 


2.837 


2.847 


2.856 


2.865 


2.875 


2.884 


2.893 


2.913 


2.922 


2.931 


2.941 


2.951 


3.960 


2.969 


2.979 


2.988 


3.007 


3.016 


3.026 


3-C35 


3-044 


3-054 


3-063 


3.072 


3.082 


3.10T 


3. no 


3.120 


3.129 


3.138 


3.148 


3-157 


3.166 


3.176 


3-195 


3.204 


3-213 


3-223 


3 - 232 


3-241 


3-251 


3.260 


3.269 


3.288 


3.298 


3-307 


3-316 


3.326 


3-335 


3-344 


3.354 


3-363 


3.382 


3-391 


3 400 


3 410 


3-419 


3.428 


3-438 


3.447 


3-456 


3-475 


3.4«4 


3-494 


3-503 


3-512 


3.521 


3-531 


3-540 


3-549 


3.568 


3.577 


3.587 


3-596 


3.605 


3.614 


3-624 


3-633 


3.642 


3.661 


3.670 


3-679 


3.68q 


3.698 


3-707 


3-717 


3.726 


3-735 


3-754 


3-763 


3-772 


3-781 


3.791 


3.800 


3.809 


3.818 


3.828 



I-95I 
2-047 
2.143 
2.239 

2-334 
2.430 
2-525 
2.620 
2.714 
2.809 
2.903 
2.997 
3.091 
3-185 
3-279 
3-372 
3.466 
3-559 
3.652 
3-744 
3-837 



RELATION OF FAT CONTENT TO ACIDITY OP 
SKIM-MILK, MILK, AND CREAM. (A. Vind.) 

(See p. 306.) 





Skim- 


Whole 






milk. 


Milk. 




Fat contents 


per ct. 


5 per ct. 


25perct. 


3operct. 


35 perct. 


40 perct. 


' 


cc. 


% 


cc. 


% 


cc. 


% 


cc. 


% 


cc. 


% 


cc. 


% 


Equal acidity test 


10 


.18 


9-5 


-17 


7-5 


.14 


7 


•13 


6-5 


.12 


6 


.11 


' 






45 


.81 


43 




77 


34 


.bi 


31-5 


•57 


29 


.52 


37 


•49 








48 


.86 


45-5 




82 


36 


.65 


33.5 


.60 


31 


.56 


29 


•.52 


, " ' 






50- 


•90 


48 




86 


37-5 


.67 


35 


-63 


32.5 


.58 


30 


•54 


" ' 






52 


.94 


49-5 




89 


39 


•70 


36.5 


.66 


34 


.61 


31 


.S6 


*' ' 






54 


•97 


51 




92 


40-5 


•73 


38 


.68 


35 


•63 


.32.5 


..58 


' 






55 


-99 


52 




94 


41 


•74 


38.5 


.09 


3» 


•'^S 


33 


..59 






• 


57 


1.03 


54 




97 


43 


-77 


40 


.72 


37 


.67 


34 


.61 


" ' 






59 


1.06 


56 


I 


01 


44 


-79 


41-5 


•75 


38. 5 


.69 


35. S 


.64 




60 


1.08 


57 


1.03 


45 


.81 


42 


.76 


39 


.70 


36 


.65 



314 DAIRYING. 

THE SLIDING-SCALE OVERRUN. (Farrington.) 



Fat 


Fat Re- 


Butter 


Fat 


Fat Re- 


Butter 


Fat 


Fat Re- 


Butter 


covered 


from 


covered 


from 


covered 


from 


Milk. 


m 
Butter. 


100 lbs. 
Fat. 


Milk. 


in 
Butter. 


100 lbs. 
Fat. 


Milk. 


m 
Butter. 


100 lbs. 
Fat. 


Per 

Cent. 


Per 
Cent. 


Lbs. 


Per 
Cent. 


Per 

Cent. 


Lbs. 


Per 
Cent. 


Per 

Cent. 


Lbs. 


2.5 


95.80 


115. 4 


4- I 


97.45 


117. 4 


5-6 


98.13 


118. 2 


2.6 


95.96 


115.6 


4 


2 


97-51 


117. 5 


5-7 


98. 16 


118 


2 


2.7 


g6. 12 


115. 8 


4 


3 


97.56 


117-5 


5-8 


98. 20 


118 


3 


2.8 


96.25 


116. 


4 


4 


97.62 


117. 6 


5.9 


98. 22 


118 


S 


2.9 


96.38 


116. 1 


4 


5 


97.67 


117-7 


6.0 


98.25 


118 


4 


3-0 


96.51 


1 16. 2 


4 


6 


97.72 


117. 7 


6.1 


98.28 


118 


4 


3-1 


96.62 


116. 4 


4 


7 


97.77' 


117-8 


6.2 


98.31 


118 


4 


3.2 


96.73 


116. 5 


4 


8 


97.82 


117-8 


6.3 


98.33 


118 


5 


3-3 


96.83 


116. 7 


4 


9 


97.86 


117-9 


6.4 


98.36 


118 


5 


3-4 


96.91 


116. 8 


5 





97.90 


117-9 


6.5 


98.38 


118 


5 


3-5 


97.00 


116. 9 


5 


I 


97.95 


118. 


6.6 


98.41 


118 


5 


3.0 


97.10 


117. 


5 


2 


97.99 


118. 1 


6.7 


98.43 


118 


6 


3-7 


97.16 


117. 1 


5 


3 


98.03 


118. 1 


6.8 


98.46 


118 


6 


3-8 


97.24 


117. 2 


5 


4 


98. 06 


118. 1 


6.9 


98.48 


118 


6 


3.9 


97.31 


117. 2 


5 


5 


98.10 


118. 2 


7.0 


98.51 


118 


7 


4.0 


97.38 


117. 3 















The table is based on the assumptions that 85 per cent skim-milk and 
10 per cent buttermilk are obtained, testing .1 and .2 per cent of fat, 
respectively; furthermore, that the butter contains 83 per cent fat. 

Example- — 3450 lbs. of milk testing 4.2 per cent fat contain 3450 X 
.042=144.9 lbs. of butter-fat; this multiplied by the overrun for milk 
testing 4.2 per cent, 1.175 gives 170.25 lbs. as the calculated amount of 
butter which the milk would make. 



COMPARATIVE PRICES OF MILK, CREAM, 
BUTTER-FAT AND BUTTER. (Doane.) 



Cream 


Price 


3-5% 4-5% 5-5% 


Butter 


Butter 


Per Cent 


per 


Milk. Milk. Milk. 


Fat per 


per 


Fat. 


Callon. 


. Price per Quart. ■ 


Pound. 


Pound. 




Cents. 


Cents. 


Cents. 


Cents. 


Cents. 


Centa. 


20 


50 


1 2 


14s 


17 


28 


23.5 


20 


55 


12 


15-5 


18 


31 


26 


20 


60 


13-5 


16.5 


195 


34 


28 


20 


65 


14-5 


18 


21 


37 


31 


20 


70 


15-5 


19 


22 


40 


33 


22 


SO 


1 1 


13 


15 


25 


21 


22 


5 5 


12 


14-5 


17 


28 


23-5 


22 


60 


13 


15.5 


18 


31 


26 


22 


65 


13.5 


16.5 


19-5 


33-5 


28 


22 


70 


14-5 


17-5 


20. s 


36 


30 


22 


75 


15 


18.5 


22 


39 


32.5 


25 


55 


I r 


13 


15 


25 


21 


25 


60 


II -5 


14 


16.5 


27 


22.5 


25 


65 


12 .5 


15 


17 -5 


29-S 


24-5 


25 


70 


I 3 


16 


18.5 


32 


26.5 


25 


75 


14 


17 


19-5 


34.5 


28.5 


25 


80 


14s 


17.5 


20.5 


36.5 


30.5 






BUTTER. 



315 



POUNDS OF MILK REQUIRED TO MAKE ONE 
POUND OF BUTTER. 



Per Cent 
Fat in Milk. 
2.8. . 
3.0 .. 
3.2... 
3.4... 
3.6... 
3.8... 
4.0... 
4.2.0. 

4.4... 
4.6... 
4.8.,. 



Lbs. of Milk per 

I lb. of Butter. 

3I-I 

29.0 

,. . . . 27.2 

25.5 

24.2 

22.9 

21.7 

20.7 

, ... 19.8 

18.9 

18.1 



Per Cent 
Fat in Milk. 
5.0... 
5.2... 
5.4... 
5.6. . 
5.8... 
6.0... 
6.2... 
6.4... 

6.6... 
6.8... 
7.0... 



Lbs. of Milk pel 

I lb. of Butter. 

17.4 

16.7 

16. 1 

15-5 

15.0 

14.5 

14.0 

13.6 

13.2 

12.8 

12.4 



Lhs. of Milk per 
I lb. of Butter. 



10 
II. 
12. 
13. 
14- 

15. 

16. 

17. 

18. 
19. 
20. 
21. 
22. 

23 
24. 

25 



Per Cent 
Fat in Milk. 
. 8.70 
. 7.90 
. 7.25 
. 6.69 
. 6.21 

. 5-8o 

. 5.44 

. 5-12 

. 4.83 

• 4.58 
. 4-35 

• 4.14 

■ 3-95 

• 3-78 

■ 3-62 

• 3-47 



Lbs. of Milk per 
I lb. of Butter, 
26 



27. 
28. 
29. 
30. 

31- 

32. 

33- 
34. 
35 
36. 

37. 

38. 

39. 
40. 



Per Cent 
Fat in Milk 

• 3-34 
. 3-22 
. 3-II 

. 3.00 
. 2.90 

, 2.81 

. 2.72 

. 2.64 

. 2.56 

. 2.48 

, 2.42 

• 2.35 

. 2.2c 

. 2.23 

2.17 



The two preceding tables are based on ordinary creamery 
experience, i pound of fat in the milk producing 1.15 
pounds of butter. 



316 



DAIRYING, 



NUMBER OF POUNDS OF MIL.K REQUIRED FOR 
MAKING ONE POUND OF BUTTER. (Kirchner.) 



Lbs. Butter per 


Lbs. Milk per i 


Lbs. Butter per 


Lbs. Milk per i 


loolbs. of Milk. 


lb. of Butter. 


100 lbs. of Milk. 


lb. of Butter. 


2.4 


41.67 


3-8 


26.32 


2-5 


40.00 


^•9 


25.64 


2.6 


38.46 


4.0 


25.00 


""l 


37-04 


4.1 


24-39 


2.8 


35 71 


4.2 


23.81 


2.9 


3448 . 


4-3 


23.56 


30 


33-33 


4.4 


22.73 


31 


32.26 


4.5 


22 22 


3-2 


31 25 


4.6 


21.74 


3.3 


30-30 


4-7 


21.28 


3-4 


29.41 


4.8 


20.83 


3-S 


28.57 


4.9 


20.41 


3-6 


27.68 


5-0 


20.00 


3-7 


27.03 


5-5 


18.18 



DISTRIBUTION OF MILK INGREDIENTS IN 
BUTTER MAKING. (Cooke.) 











c 






Proportion 




-a 




c 


a 

3 


rt 




of the Total 




5^ 




"5 






Milk Fat 




t; 


% 


x; 




found in the 




H 


fe 


!J 


< 


S 


< 


Product. 




lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 




1000 lbs. of whole milk 


130.0 


40.0 


26.0 


7 


49-5 


7-5 




800 lbs. of skim-milk. ... 


78.0 


2.4 


22.0 


6.0 


41.2 


6.4 


6 


200 lbs. of cream 


52.0 


37.6 


4.0 


1 .0 


8.3 


I.I 


94 


187 Ihs. of buttermilk 


14.91 


.8 


3-77 


.94 


8.3 


i.i 


2 


43.3 lbs. of butter.. 


37-09 


36.8 


-23 


.06 






92 



SCORE FOR JUDGING BUTTER GENERALLY 
ADOPTED IN AMERICAN CONTESTS. 

Flavor 45 

Grain (body) 25 

Color 15 

Salt 10 

Packing (style) 5 

100 



BUTTER. 



317 



This score has been adopted in judging butter exhibits 
at various State fairs and dairymen's conventions during 
late years; in some cases the score has been changed to 
50 for flavor and 5 for salting, otherwise as above, or to 
flavor 40, grain 30, with other points as above. 

Minimum number of points entitling exhibitors to a 
premium : 

Wisconsin Dairymen's Association, 93, 95, and 94 points, 
for dairy, separator creamery, and gathered-cream butter, 
respectively. 

New York State Fair, 75 points. 

ENGLiISH SCALE OF POINTS FOR JUDGING 

BUTTER. (MCCONNELL.) 

Perfection, 100. 
25 Flavor : nutty, aromatic, sweet. 
20 Moisture : as free from beads of water as possible. 
10 Solidity : firm, not melting easily, nor softening. 
25 Texture : closeness of grain, distinct fracture ; not 

greasy. 
10 Color : natural, even. 

10 Make : remaining points, cleanliness, salting, nicely 
put up, etc. 



SCORE IN JUDGING PROFICIENCY OF BUTTER- 
MAKERS. 

(Adopted by British Dairy Farmers' Association.) 
Butter-making-. 



Preparation of cream 4 

" " utensils 6 

Ventilation of churn 4 

Judgment and skill in churning^ . . 15 

Washinfi butter in churn 10 

Use of strainer 4 

" "thermometer 7 

" "butter-worker 7 



Salting 5 

Making up. .. 15 

Flavor and color 7 

Texture and freedom from moist- 
ure 7 

Cleaning utensils 4 

Rapidity and cleanliness of work- 
ing 5 



318 



DAIRYING. 



ANALYSES OF AMERICAN DAIRY SALTS. 

(In Per Cent.*) 



Name of Brand. 



Acme 

Anchor 

Ashton 

Bradley 

Canfield& Wheeler.... 
Diamond Crystal. 

Empire 

Genesee 

Higgins 

Le Roy 

Lone Star 

Vacuum Pan 

Warsaw 

Worcester 

Coleman 

Rice 

Windsor 









^ 


3 






, 


u 


o 


4J 






3 




<Sl 




a 

3 


s 

3 


E3 

3 


a 

3 


c 




^ 


^ 


tx 


o 
to 


U 


u ; 


3 


98.39 


1 .22 


.12 


07 


97 


79 


1.48 


.28 


08 


98 


01 


1.42 


.20 


16 


98 


27 


.90 


.40 


07 


9B 


18 


1. 21 


.22 


12 


99 


18 


•54 


.19 


OS 


98 


58 


.66 


•54 


10 


98 


27 


I. II 


.24 


07 


98 


19 


1.44 


.14 


10 


98 


IS 


1-31 


■39 


08 


98 


24 


1.46 


.06 


08 


98 


GO 


115 


•36 


IS 


98 


43 


.96 


.40 


06 


98 


57 


.92 


•25 


07 


98 


21 


1.48 


.lO 


04 


97 


57 


1.85 


.12 


09 


98 


43 


.90 


.51 


04 



•03 

.06 
•03 

.02 

.04 
•03 

.02 

.04 

.02 
.01 

.06 
•03 

• 03 

.02 

.08 
.07 





„ 




« 













a 




«/3 . 


• 


w >» 






3 


t> 


s 


rt 5 





gio 


i 


«< 


17 


•944 


31 


1. 125 


18 


•703 


34 


.876 


23 


1.062 


or 


.880 


ID 


•933 


16 


.875t 


II 


.907 


06 


1.094$ 


10 


1.072 


31 


1^075 


12 


.962 


17 


1. 149 


09 


.865 


30 


.S28 


11 


..io7§ 



4) (U 



^ O 
O.C/3 

i'S 

U 



24 
31 
39 
63 
26 
33 

31+ 
28 
25I: 
28 

30 
39 
29 
28 
30. 



* See IVo^/, " A Study of Dairy Salt/'' Bulletin No. 74, Wis. E.xp. Sta. 
+ Butter-salt; cheese-salt, appar. sp. gr. .671; rate of solubility 34 sec. 
X Butter-salt; cheese-salt, appar. sp. gr. .944; rate of solubility 37 sec. 
§ Butter-salt; cheese-salt, appar. sp. gr. .891; rate of solubility 32 sec. 

TEMPERATURES AT WHICH DAIRY PRODUCTS SHOULD 
BE STORED IN COLD STORAGE. (Douglas.) 



Article. 


Temper- 
ature, 
deg. F. 


Article. 


Temper- 
ature , 
deg. F. 


Butter 


25-38 

20 
20-35 
28-35 

35 
28-35 


Milk .... 


32 
20-35 
28-30 


Butter, to freeze 


: Oleomargarine 

\ Poultry, frozen 

' Poultry, to freeze 

1 Poultry, long storage . . 




10-18 


Cream 


10 


Eggs. . . 









CHEESE. 319 



V. CHEESE. 

• HOW AMERICAN CHEESE IS MADE. 

By Prof. John W. Decker, of Ohio Dairy School, Author of 

"Cheddar Cheese Making." 
A. Factory or Cheddar Cheese. 

As soon as the milk is received at the factory it is heated 
to 86'' F. and a rennet test made.* 

Tf the milk is not ripe enough it is held till the proper 
acidity is reached. If the milk is very sweet a starter of 
sour milk is added to hasten it. The milk should be set at 
such a ripeness that there will be one eighth of an inch 
of acid (fine strings) on the hot-iron in two hours and a half 
from the time rennet is added. 

If the cheese is to be colored the color is added just be- 
fore setting the milk. When it is thoroughly stirred in, 
tlie rennet may be added. The amount of rennet to be used 
depends on the kind of cheese desired. If a soft fast-cur- 
ing cheese is wanted, enough rennet i*s used to coagulate 
the milk in fifteen to twenty minutes ; if a slow-curing 
cheese, enough to coagulate in thirty to forty-five minutes. 
It is stirred in thoroughly in four or five minutes and then 
the dipper is run lightly over the top, to keep the cream 
down till the milk begins to thicken, when a cloth cover is 
spread over the vat and the coagulation allowed to continue 
till the curd will break clean over the fingers. 

* The Monrnd rennet test is recommended. It consists of a 160 cc. tin 
cylinder for measuring the miik, a 5 cc. pipette, a 50 cc. graduated flask, 
and a half-pint tin basin. The rennet is measured with the 5 cc. pipette 
and delivered into the 50 cc. flask, the rennet adhering to the pipette being 
/insed into the flask with a little water. The flask is then filled with water 
to the 50 cc. mark, and the solution mixed by shaking. The milk, the 
temperature of which should be 86° F., is measured in the tin cylinder, 
emptied into the half-pint basin, and 5 cc. of the dilute extract is measured 
into the 160 cc, of milk, and the number of seconds required to curdle it 
uoted. If a few specks of charcoal are scattered on the milk and the milk 
(started into motion around the dish with a thermometer, the instant of 
curdling can be noted by the stopping of the specks. They will stop so 
suddenly as to seem to start back in the opposite direction. The Marsckall 
rennet test is a very convenient device for ascertaining the exact moment 
of coagulation, and is used extensively in cheese factories. 



320 DAIRYING. 

The curd is then cut, using the horizontal knife first and 
cutting lengthwise of the vat. The cutting is finished from 
this point with the perpendicular knife, the curd being thus 
cut into cubes one-half inch in diameter. Without waiting for 
the curd to settle, begin stirring very carefully with a wire 
basket, and rub the curd off from the sides of the vat with the 
hand. As soon as this is done, turn on the heat carefully and 
raise the temperature slowly to 98° F. ; when the curd is firm 
enough a wooden rake is used to stir it. The temperature is 
raised at the rate of one deg. in 4-5 min. 

As soon as the temperature of 98° F. is reached, begin trying 
the curd on the hot iron for acid. The curd must be firm enough 
when the whey is drawn, so that a double handful pressed together 
will fall apart readily. This is the test for a proper cooking. 
When fine threads J in. long show on the hot iron the whey is ready 
to draw.* This should be 2^ hrs. from the time the milk was set. 
The whey is drawn off by means of a whey gate and strainer, 
and the curd dipped into a curd-sink or on racks placed in the 
vat, over which a linen strainer-cloth is thrown. The curd 
should be stirred on the cloth to facilitate the escape of the 
whey, and'is then left to mat together. In 15 or 20 min. it can 
be cut into blocks 8 or 10 ins. square, and turned over. After 
turning several times these blocks can be piled two or three 
deep. The acid will continue to develop in the curd; when it 
will string about an inch it will have assumed a stringy or meaty 
texture, so that it will tear like the meat on a chicken's breast. 

It is then run through the curd-mill and cut up into small 
pieces. These pieces are stirred up every little while to air. 
In the course of another hour and a half there will be 2 in. of 
acid on the curd; it will smell like toasted cheese when pressed 
against the hot iron, and half fat and half whey will run ouj; 



* The acidimeter is sometimes used to take the place of the rennet test 
and hot iron. The apparatus is sold by firms handling dairy supplies. 
The milk is set at an acidity of .2 per cent. When cut the whey will 
have a lower acidity, probably .17 per cent. When the acidity in the 
whey reaches .2 per cent the whey is drawn. The drawings from the 
curd will show a rapid increase in acid. This test should be used with 
care and in combination with rennet test and hot iron. 



CHEESE. 321 

when a handful is squeezed. It is then ready to salt. It is 
cooled to 80° F. betore salting. If a fast-curing cheese is wanted 
use 2 lbs. per 100 lbs. of curd; 2} lbs. are used for a medium 
cheese, 3 lbs. for a slow-curing cheese. The curd should be spread 
out at an even thickness and the salt applied evenly. It should 
then be thoroughly stirred several times. 

As soon as the harsh feeling has left the curd it is ready to go 
to press. The screw should be turned slowly, but fast enough so 
that a stream of" brine is kept flowing. The full pressure should 
not be applied for ten minutes. In an hour the bandages can 
be turned down, and full pressure is then applied. The Helmer 
continuous-pressure gang-press is the most satisfactory, as the 
cheese will not loosen during the night. The next day the 
cheese are placed on the shelves and the rinds greased. They 
should be turned and rubbed every day. The temperature 
of the curing-room should be 60° to 65° F., and moisture should 
be supplied in dry weather. The cheese are boxed and shipped 
in about a month. 

B. Cheese Made on the Farm. 

For a farm dairy it will be much easier to make up sweet-curd 
cheese than sour-curd cheese, described in the preceding. For 
this purpose it is necessary to have a curd-knife, a cheese-vat, 
and a cheese-press; the method of procedure is as follows": 

The milk, which must be clean and sweet, is heated to go° F., 
and if any artificial color is required it is added at this time. 
Set the milk with enough rennet extract to coagulate in 20 to 30 
minutes. About four ounces of Hansen's rennet extract per 
1000 lbs. of milk will prove a sufficient amount. 

As soon as the curd will break over the finger cut it fairly 
fine; then raise the temperature one degree in 3 minutes until 
io8°*F. is reached, at the same time stirring carefully to keep 
the curd particles apart. Hold at 108° F. till the curd is firm, that 
is, till the pieces do not feel mushy. Then draw the whey and 
stir till the whey is well drained out. Salt at the rate of 2§ lbs. 
of salt to 100 lbs. of curd, and when the salt is well worked in 
it may be put to press. It will, however, improve the quality if 
kept warm and allowed to stand a number of hours before salting 
and pressing. The cheese should be cured in a room (preferably 



322 DAIRTIKG. 

a cellar) where the temperature can be kept at 60° F. Higher 
temperatures may spoil it. The cheese should be cured for two to 
three months before it is sold. 

CAUSES OF TAINTED MILK. 

The causes of tainted milk have been classified as tol- 
lows, by the Swiss scientist, Dr. Gerber: 

1. Poor, decayed fodders, or irrational methods of feeding. 

2. Poor, dirty water, used for drinking-water or for the 
washing of utensils. 

3. Foul air in cow-stable, or the cows lying in their own 
dung. 

4. Lack of cleanliness in milking; manure particles on 
udder. 

5. Keeping the milk long in too warm, poorly ventilated 
and dirty places. 

6. Neglecting to cool the milk rapidly, directly after 
milking. 

7. Lack of cleanliness in the care of the milk, from which 
cause the greater number of milk taints arise. 

8. Poor transportation facilities. 

9. Sick cows, udder diseases, etc. 

10. Cows being in heat. 

11. Mixing fresh and old milk in the same can, 

12. Rusty tin pails and tin cans (Boggild). 

DETECTING BAD MILK: DIRECTIONS FOR OP- 
ERATING THE WISCONSIN CURD-TEST. 

Cheese-makers are often troubled with so-called ^afing, 
pinholed, ox gassy curds which produce cheese defective in 
flavor and texture. The cause of this poor quality of cheese 
often seems beyond the power of the operator to determine. 
While he has heretofore usually laid it to "bad" milk, it ' 
was often impossible for him to locate the trouble. By 
means of the curd-test the operator is usually able to tell 
which patron or patrons are furnishing the bad milk; and! 
often in the patron's herd it will be shown to be due to 
single cow. This test as here described originated at the 



CHEESE. 323 

Wisconsin Dairy School in 1895. Apparatus for making 
the test is now furnished by dairy supply-houses, although 
a home-made test can be improvised by using pint fruit- 
jars and a wash-tub or some small tank, in which the jars 
of milk can be heated in warm water. 

Details of the Test. — i. A pint glass jar which has 
been thoroughly cleaned, and sterilized with live steam, is 
filled about two thirds full with the milk to be tested. 

2. It is not necessary to take an exact quantity of milk, 
but each jar should be plainly labeled. 

3. The numbered jars of milk are placed in a tank or tub 
of water which is heated until the milk in the jars has a 
temperature of 98° F. 

4. The thermometer used should first be rinsed in boiling 
water before being placed in another sample, to avoid con- 
tamination of good milk with bad milk. 

5. When the milk has reached a temperature of 98° F., 
add 10 drops of rennet extract to each jar of milk, and mix 
by giving the jar a rotary motion. 

6. The rennet soon curdles the milk, and the curd is al- 
lowed to stand for about twenty minutes until it is firm. 

7. The curd should then be cut into small pieces with a 
case-knife, and after settling the whey is poured off. 
The best tests are made when the separation of whey is 
most complete. By allowing the samples to stand for a 
short time, more whey can be poured off, and the curd 
thereby rendered firmer. 

8. The jars containing the curd are then again placed in 
the tub and the temperature of the water around the jars is 
maintained at or near 98° F. by adding hot water from time 
to time. The tub or vat is covered, the curds are allowed 
to ferment in the sample jars for six to twelve hours and 
are then examined. 

9. The impurities in any particular sample will cause 
gases to be developed in the curd, so that when it is cut 
with a knife pin-holes or gas-holes can be easily detected. 
Milks having a putrefactive or stinking odor should be 
classed as bad, even though the curd has a good texture 
and is free from pin-holes. 



324 DAIRYING. 

The curds in this test are made under conditions most 
favorable for developing in them any defects which may be 
caused by the presence of undesirable bacteria that are 
brought to the milk by dust, dirt, and other impurities. 

The odor of a curd should be noticed as soon as the coveir 
is taken from a jar. This is often sufficient to convince a 
patron that the milk is tainted, and may suggest to him the 
particular cause of the odor by its resemblance to some fa- 
miliar smell that he recognizes and can remove. 

A solid firm curd shows that the milk is pure and clean 
and has been properly handled. The rather firm curds 
which show fine pin-holes when cut with a knife are indi- 
cations of some of the worst impurities in milk, while the 
spongy curds show the presence of bacteria which in some 
cases have developed sufficient gas to float the curd. Per- 
sons familiar with milk soon learn to use the evidence 
obtained by this test to distinguish between good and bad 
milk, and to convince the milk-producers of the value of the 
test. (Dairy Bull., Wis. Exp. Station.) 

THE FERMENTATION TEST. 

The Gerber fermentation test (modified by Monrad) fur- 
nishes a convenient method for discovering tainted milk on 
the farm or at the factory. The test consists of a tin tank 
which can be heated by means ot a small lamp, and into 
which a rack fits holding a certain number of cylindrical 
glass tubes ; these are all numbered and provided with a 
mark and a tin cover. In making the test the tubes are 
filled to the mark with milk, the number of each tube being 
recorded in a notebook opposite the name of the particular 
patron whose milk was placed therein. The tubes in the 
rack are put in the tank, which is two thirds full of water; 
the temperature ot the water is kept at 104-106° F. for six 
hours, when the rack is taken out, the tubes gently shaken, 
and the appearance of the milk, its odor, taste, etc., carefully 
noted in each rase. The tubes are then again heated in the 
tank at the same temperature as before for another six 
hours, when observations are once more taken of the ap- 



k 



CHEESE. 325 

pearance of the milk in each tube. The tainted milk may 
then easily be discovered on account of the abnormal coagu- 
lation of the sample. 

Gerber concluded from over 1500 tests made by this 
method : 

1. That good and properly handled milk should not co- 
agulate in less than 12 hours, nor show anything abnormal 
when coagulated. 

2. If it does, it shows the milk to be abnormal, either on 
account of its chemical composition or because it is impreg- 
nated with too much ferment (rather, abnormal ferments, 
causing an undesirable fermentation). 

3. Milk from sick cows, cows that are strongly in heat, 
or cows with diseased udders will always coagulate in less 
than 12 hours. 

4. Only about 20 per cent of the tests coagulated within 
12 hours. 

Monrad proposes the following rules for the adoption of 
this test by cheese factories : 

1. '' A proper journal is kept of all the tests. 

2. " The patrons whose milk is tainted have to pay the 
cost of making the test. 

3. " The patrons whose milk is tainted will be kept track 
of, and in case there is any loss caused thereby they will 
have to stand it. 

4. " Patrons having tainted milk shall be notified at once, 
and another test made three days later. If then the milk 
is still bad, a test of each cow's milk is made on the farm 
and otherwise the reason sought to be discovered, and until 
then the milk will be refused." 



326 DAIRYING. 

DETERMINATION OP HUMIDITY IN CHEESE- 
CUHING ROOMS. 

The proper degree of humidity in the cheese-curing 
room will vary with different kinds of cheese and at differ- 
ent stages of the curing process. Green cheese should be 
placed in a somewhat drier curing-room than older ; the 
latter kinds, according to Fleischmann, require a relative 
humidity of 90°-95°, against 85°-go° for green cheese, 

Kirchner states that the humidity of curing-rooms should 
not, in general, go below 80' or above 95°. Temperature? 
from 50°-70° F. are preferable in the curing-room. 

The following temperatures and percentages of humidity 
are recommended by Martiny: 

Per Cent 
Deg. Fahr. Humidity 

(a) For hard cheeses (Swiss, etc.). 

Green 59-63 9^-95 

Half cured 54-59 85-90 

Cured 50-54 80-95 

(b) For soft cheeses (Limburger, etc.) 50-59 80-95 

In the interior of our continent it is somewhat difficult 
to obtain as much moisture in the air of curing-rooms as is 
represented by the preceding figures ; the relative humid- 
ity of ordinary curing-rooms in this region, therefore, but 
rarely goes over 60°. A higher degree of humidity may 
be obtained by hanging wet sheets of canvas in the curing- 
room (Decker), or by similar devices, as described in the 
thirteenth ann. report of Wis, Experiment Station. 

Self-recording thermometers are to be recommended for 
use in curing-rooms. For observation of relative humidity 
a wet and dry bulb thermometer, a Mittchoff's hygrometer, 
or a Lambrecht's polymeter may be used to advantage. 
Any of these instruments may be obtained through dealers 
in chemical glassware or dairy 'supplies; the prices range 
from $8 to $30. 



I 



CHEESE. 



327 



TABLE SHOWING THE RELATIVE HU3IIDITY IN 
THE AIR OF CURING-ROOMS. (King) 

Directions.— Notice that the table is in three column sections. Find 
air temperature in first column, then find wet-bulb temperature in second 
column, same division. In third column opposite this is relative humidity. 

Exa7)iple. — Air temperature is 50°, in first column ; wet-bulb is 44°, in 
second column, same division. Opposite 44° is 61, which is the percent 
of saturation, or the relative humidity of the air. 

Caution. — Fan the bulb briskly for a minute or two before taking reading. 







1 = 




n 


a 






ti 




t;5 


a 




32 


37 




35 


31 




41 


48 




46 


58 




33 


44 




36 


37 




42 


54 




47 


63 




34 


52 




37 


44 




43 


60 




48 


69 


40 


35 


59 




38 


50 


49 


44 


67 


53 


49 


75 


36 


68 


45 


39 


57 




45 


73 




50 


8i 




37 


76 


40 


64 




46 


80 




51 


87 




38 


84- 




41 


71 
78 
85 




47 
48 


86 
93 




52 


94 




39 


92 




42 






42 


32 










43 












32 


31 

38 




44 


92 




39 
40 


32 
37 




43 
44 


37 
^0 




33 














34 


46 




35 


26 




4^ 


43 




45 


48 




35 


53 




36 


^o 




42 


49 




46 


53 


41 


36 


60 




37 


3S 




43 


55 


54 


47 


59 




37 


68 




38 


45 


50 


44 


61 


48 


64 




38 


76 




39 


51 




45 


67 




49 


7(1 




39 


84 


46 


40 


S8 




46 


l^ 




50 


f 




40 


92 




41 


65 




47 


80 




51 


82 










42 


72 




48 


87 




52 


88 












33 


33 




43 


79 
85 




49 


93 




53 


94 




34 


40 




44 
















35 
36 


47 




45 


93 




40 


33 
39 




43 

44 


P 




54 










41 




42 


37 


61 




36 


28 




42 


45 




^l 


43 




38 


69 




37 


34 




43 


50 




46 


49 




39 


77 




38 


40 




44 


56 




47 


54 




40 


84 




39 


46 


51 


45 


62 


55 


48 


59 




41 


92 


47 


40 
41 
42 


52 




46 
47 
48 


68 
74 
81 


49 

SC- 
SI 


65 
76 




33 


28 








34 


34 




43 


72 




49 


87 




52 


82 






41 




44 


79 




50 


93 




53 


88 




36 


48 




45 

46 


86 

93 










54 












94 


43 


1? 


62 






41 


35 


















42 


40 




44 


34 




39 


70 




37 


29 




43 


46 




45 


39 




40 


77 




38 


35 




44 


51 




46 


44 




41 


85 




39 


41 




45 


57 




47 


50 




42 


92 




40 


47 


52 


46 


63 




48 


55 










41 


53 




47 


69 


56 


49 


60 












34 


29 


48 


42 


60 




48 


75 


50 


65 




35 


36 




43 


66 




49 


81 




51 


71 




36 


43 




44 


73 




50 


87 




52 


V 




37 


49 




45 


79 




5^ 


94 




53 


82 




38 


56 




46 


86 










54 


88 


44 








39 


63 




47 


93 




41 


P 




55 


94 




40 


70 










42 










41 


78 




38 


30 


S3 


43 


41 




^l 


36 




42 


85 


49 


39 


36 




44 


47 


57 


46 


40 


^___ 


43 


92 




40 


42 


45 


52 




47 


45 . 



328 



DAIRYING. 



HUMIDITY IN THE AIR OF CURING-ROOMS. - 


-Con, 




n 


tl 


ta 
0^ 










^ a 


b:2 




^m 






48 


50 




58 


84 




55 


49 




61 


60 




49 


55 


61 


59 


89 




56 


53 




62- 


64 




5^ 


61 




60 


94 




57 . 


57 




63 


68 




51 


66 










58 


61 




64 


72 










57 


52 


71 




50 


41 




59 


66 


70 


65 


77 




53 


77 




51 


45 


66 


60 


71 




66 


81 




54 


83 




52 


50 




6i 


75 




67 


86 




55 


88 




53 


54 




62 


80 




68 


90 




56 


94 


62 


54 


59 
64 




^3 
64 


85 




69 


95 








55 




90 










46 


37 




56 


69 




65 


95 




58 
59 


45 
48 




47 


42 




57 


74 












48 


46 




58 


79 




54 


41 




60 


52 




49 


51 




59 


84 




55 


45 




61 


56 




50 


56 




60 


89 




56 


49 




62 


60 


58 


51 


61 




61 


95 




57 


53 




63 


64 






67 
72 










58 
59 


58 
62 


71 


64 
65 


68 




52 
53 




51 


42 




72 




54 


78 




52 


46 


67 


60 


66 




66 


77 




55 


83 




53 


51 




61 


7t 




67 


81 




56 


89 




54 


55 




62 


76 




68 


86 




37 


94 




55 


60 




63 


80 




69 


9' 


"~^ 






63 


56 


64 
69 




64 

65 


85 




70 


95 






38 




47 




57 




90 










48 


43 




S8 


74 




66 


95 




60 


45 
49 




49 


47 




59 


79 












50 


52 




60 


84 




55 


42 




61 


53 




51 


57 




61 


89 




56 


46 




62 


57 


59 


52 


62 




62 


95 




57 


50 




63 


61 






67 
72 










eg 


It 




64 


65 
69 




53 
54 




52 


43 




59 


72 




55 


78 




53 


47 




60 


63 




66 


73 




56 


83 




54 


51 


68 


61 


67 




67 


77 




57 


89 




55 


56 




62 


71 




68 


82 




58 


94 




56 


60 




63 


76 




69 


86 








64 


57 
58 
59 


65 
70 
74 




64 
65 

66 


81 




70 
71 


91 
95 




48 
49 


39 
44 




85 
90 














5'3 


48 




60 
61 


79 
85 




67 


95 




60 
61 


46 
50 




51 


53 
















52 


58 




62 


90 




56 


43 




62 


53 


60 


53 


63 




63 


95 




57 


47 




63 


57 






68 
73 










58 
59 


51 
55 




64 


61 




54 
55 




53 


44 






65 




56 


78 




54 


48 




60 


59 


73 


66 


69 




57 


84 




55 


52 




61 


^3 




67 


73 




58 


89 




56 


56 


69 


62 


67 




68 


78 




59 


94 




57 


61 




63 


72 




69 


82 








65 


58 
59 


65 
70 




64 

65 


76 
81 




70 
71 


86 




49 


40 






9^ 




50 


44 




60 
61 


11 




66 

67 


86 




72 


95 




51 


49 






90 








61 


52 


It 




62 
63 


85 
90 




68 


95 




6t 
62 


47 
50 


53 
















54 


63 




64 


95 




57 


44 


74 


63 


54 






68 
73 










5^ 
59 


48 
52 


64 


^8 




11 


66 


53 


40 


70 




62 




57 


78 


54 


45 




60 


55 




66 1 66 



CHEKRE. 



329 



HUMIDITY 


IN THE AIR OF CURING ROOMS. - 


-Con. 


h4 


x>a 


t;§ 


>.x> 


t35 


t:§ 


>.J0 


CJ5 


•S'l 


h£ 


S£ 


t;! 


Q = 


^^ 


^E 


^i 


^^ 


ti^i 


°« 


^^ 


^x Q^ 


^cS 


'^K 




67 


70 




63 


48 




72 


78 




69 


60 




68 


74 




64 


52 




73 


83 




70 


64 




69 


7a 




65 


55 


77 


74 


87 




71 


68 


74 


70 


82 




66 


59 




75 


91 




72 


71 




7' 


86 




67 


63 




76 


95 


79 


73 


75 




72 


91 




68 


66 










74 
















73 


95 


76 


59 


70 




65 
66 
67 


49 




75 
76 
77 


83 
87 
91 




62 


47 




71 


78 




i 






6:5 


51 




72 


82 




68 


60 


















64 


55 




73 


87 




69 


63 




66 


47 




6S 


s8 




74 


91 


-78 


70 


67 




67 


51 




66 
67 


62 
66 




75 


95 


V 


71 


71 




68 
69 


54 




















7S 


68 


70 




64 


49 




73 


79 




70 


61 




69 


74 




65 


52 




74 


83 




71 


64 




70 


78 




66 


56 




75 


87 


80 


72 


68 




71 


82 


77 


67 


59 




76 


91 




73 


72 




72 


«7 




68 


63 










74 
















73 


91 




69 


07 




66 


50 




75 


79 




74 


95 




70 


71 


79 


67 


53 




76 


83 










71 


74 




68 


57 




77 

78 


87 
92 



SCORE FOR JUDGING CHEESE. 





World's 
Fair 
1893. 


New York, 1894. 


Wisconsin 
Dairymen's 
Assoc. 1894. 




For 
Export. 


For Home 
Trade. 


Flavor. 

1 exture (and body) 

V olor 

Salting- 


45 
20 
15 
10 
10 


45 
30 
15 

ID 


50 
25 
15 

10 


45 
30 
15 


Make up (finish) 


10 




100 


100 


100 


100 



PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION OF CHEESE. (Konig.) 



Cream cheese.. 
Full cream cheese 
Half-skim cheese.. 

Skim cheese 

Sour-milk cheese.. 
Whey cheese 



5I 



27 
143 



36.33 

38 GO 

39-79 
46.00 
52.36 
23.66 



40.71 

30.25 
23.92 
11.65 
16.03 
16.91 



c<! oj 



tun -M 
O <U '-> 



1.02 

1-43 
1.79 
3-42 

.90 
45-75 



3.10 
4-97 
4-73 
4.87 
4.07 
4.78 



330 



DAIRyiNG. 



VARIETIES AND ANALYSES OF CHEESE. 

(McCONNELL.) 



Water, i Casein. Fat. I Sugar. Ash. 



British, pressed — 

Cheddar, 3 months 

6 " 

" average 

Cheshire, new 

" old 

Derby 

Dunlop 

Gloucester (single) 

(double) 

British, soft- 
Cream 

Stilton 

French, soft — 

Brie 

Camembert 

Gervais (cream) 

Neufchatel 

French, pressed — 

Gruyere 

Roquefort 

Dutch— 

Edam (round) 

Gouda (flat) 

German — 

Backstein 

Swiss — 

Backstein 

Bellelay(soft) 

Emmenthaler 

Italian^ 

Gorgonzola 

Parmesan 

Various — 

American factory 

Foreign skim, average.. 

German sour milk 

Whey cheese (cow) 

(goat) 

Centrifugal skim-milk cheese 



Per ct. 

36.17 
31.17 
34-38 
36.06 

32-59 
31.68 
38.46 
32.50 
35-96 

30-65 
30-35 

50-35 
50. 16 
5294 
44-47 

34-87 
31.20 

36.28 
21.90 

73- lo' 

35 80 
37-59 
35-14 

44.04 
31-34 

25-93 
46.08 
63.63 
24.21 
25-29 
50.5 



Per ct. 

24-93 
26.31 
26.38 
24.08 

32-51 
24.50 
25-87 
■ 28.51 
21.74 

4 94 
28.85 

17-18 
21.85 



25.87 
27.63 

24.06 
46-95 

19.80 

24.44 
28.88 
30.86 

28.06 
41.99 

38 12 

33-37 
25.27 
9.06 
9.10 

43-1 



Per ct. 

31.83 I 

33-68 

32.71 I 

29-34 

26.06 

35 -20 

31.86 

28.23 

26.83 

62.99 
35-39 



25.12 
21.13 
20.75 
33 70 

28.91 
33.16 

30.26 
24.81 



37 40 
30.05 
31.00 

29.84 
19.22 

31-55 
10.54 
4-85 
20.80 



Per ct. 
3.21 
4.91 

5-17 
4-53 
4.38 



.58 




20.98 t 29.21 

1.2 I 



Per ct 

3-86 
3-93 
3-58 
4-45 
4-31 
4.24 
3.81 
4.66 
4.07 

1. 15 

3.82 

5-41 
3.89 
2-93 
2.99 

3.84 
6.01 

4.90 
6.32 

2.10 

2.36 
348 
4.00 

3.87 
6.25 

4-38 
3-81 
3 67 
4.02 
3.88 
5 2 



DISTRIBUTION OF INGREDIENTS IN CHEESE- 
MAKING. (CooKE.) 





Total 
Solids. 


Fat. 


Casein 

and 

Albumen. 


Milk- 
sugar. 


Ash. 


Cheese 

Cheese-press drips . . . 
Whey 


Per cent 
54.2 
-9 
44-9 


Per cent 

90.6 

-4 

9.0 


Per cent 
22.0 


Per cent 

50 

1-5 

93-5 


Per cent 

36 

I 

63 






100. 


100.0 


TOO.O 


100. 


100 



CHEESE. 



331 



DISTRIBUTION OF FERTILIZING INGREDIENTS 
IN CHEESE-MAKING. (Cooke.) 



looo lbs. of whole milk, 

900 lbs. of whey 

200 lbs. of cheese 



Nitrogen. 



lbs. 
5-30 
1-35 
3-95 



Phosphoric Acid 



lbs. 

1.90 

1.23 

.65 



Potash. 



lbs. 
1-75 
1.63 



YIELD OF CHEESE FROM MILK OF DIFFERENT 
FAT CONTENTS. 



Per cent Fat 
in Milk. 


Yield of 

Cheese from 

100 Lbs. of 

Milk. 


Milk per 
Pound of 
Cheese. 


Per cent Fat 
in Milk. 


Yield of 

Cheese from 

100 Lbs of 

Milk, 

Lbs. 
9-«5 
10.8 
12,4 


Milk per 
Pound of 
Cheese. 




I 
2 


Lbs. 

5 5 

6.55 

8.0 


Lbs. 
18.2 
15-3 
12. s 


3 
4 

5 


Lbs. 
II. I 

3 
S.I 



The quality of the cheese and its food value improve with the 
increase of fat in the milk from which it is made. (Decker.) 

FORMULAS FOR FINDING YIELD OF CHEDDAR 
CHEESE. 

The approximate yield of green cheddar cheese from 100 
lbs. of milk may be found by multiplying the per cent of 
fat in the milk by 2.7; if / designate the per cent of fat in 
the milk, the formula will therefore be: 
Yield of cheese = 2.7/". 

The factor 2.7 will only hold good as the average of a 
large number of cases. In extensive investigations during 
three consecutive years Van Slyke found that the number 
of pounds of green cheese manufactured for one pound of 
fat in the milk varied from 2.51 to 3.06, the average figures 
being 2.73. 2.71, and 2.72, for 1892-94, respectively. For 
cured cheese the factor will be somewhat lower, viz., about 
2.6 on the average. 

If the percentage of solids not fat and of fat in the sam- 
ple of milk are known, the following formula, published by 
Dr. Babcock in the twelfth report of the Wisconsin Ex- 



332 



DAIRYING. 



periment Station, will give close results {s = solids not fat; 
/=fat): 

Yield of green cheese = i-SKl^ + ■9'^/)- 

This formula is based on a water content of 37 per cent 
in the cheese; it may be readily changed to suit any par- 
ticular per cent. The average percentages of water in 
green cheese in Van Slyke's investigations referred to 
above were 36.41, 3705, and 36.70 per cent for the years 
1892-94, respectively. 

If the percentages of casein and fat in the milk are both 
known, the yield of cheese may be calculated from the fol- 
lowing formula, which will give fairly correct results: 

Yield of cheese = 1.1/+ 2.5 casein. (Babcock.) 



YIEIiD OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF CHEESE FROM 
100 LBS. OF MILK. (Fleischmann.) 



Soft full-cream cheese intended for immediate 

consumption 

Very soft full-cream cheeses (Brie, Camembert, 

Neufchatel, etc.) 

Somewhat firmer, full-cream soft cheeses (Lim- 

burger. Remondon cheese, etc ) 

Soft half-skim cheese (Limburg),i^ lbs. butter and 
Soft skim cheeses (a la Brie, e amembert, Livarot. 

Backstein, etc.). 3-3.4 lbs. butter and 

Roquefort cheese (made from sheeps' milk) 

Full-milk, from American and English cheeses, 

and 75 lbs. whey-butter. 
Full-milk from Dutch and Swiss cheeses 

and .75 lbs. whey-butter. 

Half-skim firm cheeses. 1.6 lbs. butter and 

Skim-milk cheese, 3-35 lbs. butter and 

Sour-milk cheese, 3-3.5 lbs. butter and 

Scandinavian " (3ammelost " 

and 3-3.5 lbs. butter. 
Whey cheese (" Mysost ■") 

and butter and skim-milk cheese. 



Cured 
Cheese. 




Whey in manufacture of full-cream cheese, 73-88 lbs., average 81 lbs, 
" " *' " half-skim " 72-80 " '* 76 " 

*' '* " " skim cheese 66-76 '* " 71 " 

Under similar conditions 5-7 lbs. less of whey are obtained in the manu- 
facture of soft cheese than in that of firm cheese. 

The loss sustained in the manufacture of cheese amounts on the average 
to 3 lbs. per 100 lbs. of milk, not considering the losFes incurred in the 
curing of the cheese. 



CHEESE. 



333 



AVERAGE LOSS OF AMERICAN CHEDDAR 
CHEESE IN CURING. (Babcock.) 





Period 
Covered. 


Average 
Age. 


No. of 
Cheese. 


Total 
Weight 
Green. 


Total 
Weight 
Cured. 


Loss. 




Days. 


Days. 




Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Per Cent. 


I 


I-IO 


6 


C9 


2,812 


2,741.5 


70.5 


2.51 


2 


1I-20 


16 


242 


7,356.9 


7,077.0 


279.9 


3- 


3 


21-30 


25 


298 


8,530.5 


8,160.4 


370.1 


4-34 


4 


31-60 


41 


417 


12,353-3 


11,684.4 


668.9 


5-41 


5 


Over 60 


141 


172 


6,244.4 


5,736.0 


508.4 


8. II 



Total number of cheese in preceding trials 12^5. 

Average weight of green cheese 30.2 lbs. 

" temperature of curing-room 61° F. (range 55-70°). 

" humidity of air in curing-room 50 per cent. 



LOSS IN WEIGHT OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF 

CHEESE DURING CURING. (Martiny.) 

Per Cent. 
Swiss (Emmenthal) — 

made from whole milk will lose in 5 months 8-14 



" " half-skimmed milk will lose in 8 

" " skim-milk will lose in 6 

Tilsit- 
made from whole milk will lose in 4 

Dutch (Gouda) — 

made from whole milk will lose in 3 

'* " skim " " " " 4 

American Cheddar — 

made from whole milk will lose in 2 

" " " 4 

Limburger or Remoudon — 

made from whole milk will lose in 2^ 

Brick cheese — 

made from skim-milk will lose in 24 

Camembert, Brie, Neufchatel, etc. — 

made from whole milk will lose in 2 

Sour-milk cheese — 

made from whole milk will lose in 3| 



15-20 
12-15 

12-25 

20-28 
15-25 

5 
6-7 

16-28 

15-30 

20-35 

50-60 



334 



DAIRYING. 






2 ^ 



0-d 

M « 

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H O ?. 

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05 CO CO 



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09 


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moi -^O in 


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► '05 


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O O'Ti H 03 rOlO t«0 moo VO OS 00 ■.-• O^W O ' 

00 too too' too tod tod tod tos' tos mos mos mos 



CHEESE. 335 



(N 05 ■* 

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336 



DAIRYING. 



Remarks. 




ofo m-^'-e rennet used ; 

skjwered; sour whey 

added, isi2o. 

ed in oven at 70-80° F. 

en, flaky curd desired; 


xtra rcnn>... 
tra cream added, or | 
kim drawn off. 
rtly skim-milk; painted 
rown t differ gnlj in 






scalding; curd broken 
y hand. 

ained in open moulds, 
ained in open moulds; 
ipe in six weeks, 
pe in two montns. 
ained in open moulds, 
ained in cloth; i cream 
2 milk; I drop rennet 


3 V 

crc 


1 

!2 

n; 
w 
>> 

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tfl 

c 












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PN 



CHEESE. 



336a 



THE CHEESE MARKET OF THE UNITED 

(Thom.) 


STATES. 


Hard Cheeses. 


Milk. 


Yield of 
Cheese per 
loolbs.Milk 


Ripening. 


English Cheddar (best) 

Canadian or American cheddar 
Edam 


Whole milk 

Whole milk 

Low fat 

Low fat 

Low fat 

3.5-4% fa»t 

W^hole milk 

AVhole milk 

Mostly poor 

in fat 


9-1 1 
9-11 
8-1 1 
8-11 
8-1 1 , 

12-15 
o-i I 

8-TO 

12-14 (?) 


6-12 mo. 

3-12 mo. 
Long period 
Long period 

2-3 years 

4 weeks 
4 months 


Swiss 


Soft or Fancy Cheeses. 
Camembert 




Stilton (best) 


Amer." Neufchatel " and Cream 


Eaten fresh 



Hard Cheeses. 


Market- 
able 
Period. 


Retail Price per Pound. 


Europe. 


U.S. 


English cheddar (best) 

Canadian or American cheddar 
Edam 


6 mo. or more 

Months 

Very long 

Very long 

Very long 

10 days 

1-2 mo. 
2 mo. (?) 
Few days 


$0 . 22-26 
0.15* 
0.15-24 
0.24-28 
0.32 

. 26-36 
0.23-24 
0.25-35 




. 1 4- 1 8 

0.33 

0.26-35 


Swiss .... 




Soft or Fancy Cheeses. 

Camembert. . , 

Gorgonzola 

Stilton (best) 


0. 50-70 
0.45 
.4.'^-6o 
20-60 


Amer." Neufchatel " andCream 



* London, October, 1905. 

COMMERCIAL GRADES OF AMERICAN CHED- 
DAR CHEESE. (Ontario Dept. of Aoriculture.) 

First Grade. — Flavor. — Clean, sound, and pure. 

Body and Texture. — Close, firm, and silky. 

Color. — Good and uniform. 

Finish. — Fairly even in size, smoothly finished, sound and 
clean surfaces, straight, and square. 

Boxes. — Strong, clean, well made, and nailed. Ends to be 
of seasoned timber. Close fitting. Weights stenciled or marked 
with rubber stamp. 

Second Grade. — Flavor. — "Fruity," not clean, "turnipy," 
or other objectionable flavor. 

Body and Texture. — Weak, open, loose," acidy," too soft, too dry. 

Color. — Uneven, mottled, or objectionable shade. 

Finish. — Very uneven in size, showing rough corners, black 
mold, dirty or cracked surfaces, soft rinds. 

Boxes. — Too large in diameter; top edge of box more than 
\ an inch below the top of the cheese. Made of light material. 
Ends made of improperly seasoned material. 



3366 DAIRYING. 

Third Grade. — Flavor. — Rancid, badly "off," anything 
inferior to Second Grade. 

Body and Texture. — Very weak, very open, showing pinholes 
or porous, very "acidy," very soft or very dry.' 

Color. — Badly mottled, or very objectionable shade. 

Finish. — Anything worse than second grade. 

Boxes. — No question of boxes sufficient to make Third Grade 
if other qualities are good. ^ 

Explanations. — It would be impossible to define exactly the 
qualities or defects which may appear in cheese. The standards 
given are intended to indicate the range of quality for the different 
grades rather than to establish hard and fast rules to guide the 
grader. 

The expression "good color" means that the color must be of 
proper shade. There are cheap, inferior cheese colors used which 
do not give the proper shade, no matter what quality is used. 

The expression "clean surfaces" in the definition for First 
Grade does not exclude from that grade cheese with a slight 
growth of blue mold, although it is desirable that the cheese 
should not show any signs of mold. "Black mold" (see defini- 
tion for Second Grade), is simply the advanced stage of the 
ordinary blue mold. 

The following scale of points will indicate the relative values 
of the different divisions of quality: Flavor, 40; body and tex- 
ture, 30; color, 15; finish and boxing, 15; =100. 

It is obvious that a defect in flavor of a certain degree counts 
nearly three times as much in determining the grade as a defect 
in finish or boxing of the same grade. 

Cheese which are strictly sour, or otherwise inferior to Third 
Grade, will be designated as "Culls," for which there is no 
classification. 

Any lot of cheese shall be considered third grade if it shows 
three or more defects of Second Grade class. 

If there are not more than 15 per cent of defective cheese in 
any lot, the inferior ones may be sorted out and classed sepa- 
rately. If more than 15 per cent are defective, the classification, 
for the defective cheese may apply to the whole lot. 

This does not apply when inferior cheese have been properlj 
marked so as to be identified, in which case the inferior che 
shall be treated as a separate lot. 



CHEESE. 



337 



WHEY TO BE ALLOAVED AT CHEESE FACTORIES 
FOR QUANTITIES OF 311LK FROM 30 TO 360 
POUNDS. (Robertson.) 

The figures in the columns denote the inches of whey. 



Weight of 
Milk in 




Diameters of Milk-cans 


in Inches. 
















Pounds. 


20 


19 


18 


17 


16 


15 


14 


13 


13 


30 


2 


2 


3 


3 


3 


3 


4 


I 


6 


35 


2 


3 


3 


3 


3 


4 


5 


7 


40 


3 




3 


4 


4 


5 


6 


6 


7 


45 


3 




4 


4 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


50 


3 




4 


5 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


55 


4 




5 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


60 


4 




5 


6 


6 


7 


8 


9 


II 


65 


4 




5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


12 


70 


5 


5 


6 


7 


7 


8 


10 


II 


13 


75 


5 


6 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


12 


14 


80 


5 


6 


7 


8 


8 


10 


II 


12 


»5 


85 


6 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


12 


13 


16 


90 


6 


7 


7 


9 


9 


II 


12 


14 


17 


95 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


II 


13 


^5 


18 


100 


7 


7 


8 


9 


10 


12 


14 


16 


19 


105 


7 


8 


9 


9 


II 


13 


^5 


16 


19 


no 


7 


8 


9 


10 


II 


13 


15 


17 


20 


115 


8 


9 


10 


10 


12 


14 


16 


18 


21 


120 


8 


9 


10 


II 


12 


14 


17 


19 


22 


125 


8 


9 


10 


II 


13 


15 


17 


19 


23 


130 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


16 


18 


20 


24 


135 


9 


10 


II 


12 


14 


16 


19 


21 




140 


9 


10 


12 


13 


14 


17 


20 


22 




145 


10 


II 


12 


13 


15 


17 


20 


23 




150 


10 


II 


12 


14 


15 


18 


21 


24 




155 


10 


II 


13 


15 


16 


19 


22 






160 


II 


12 


13 


15 


16 


19 


22 






i6s 


II 


12 


14 


16 


17 


20 


23 






170 


II 


12 


14 


16 


17 


20 


23 






175 


12 


13 


15 


16 


18 


21 


24 






180 


12 


13 


IS 


17 


18 


22 


24 






185 


12 


14 


15 


17 


19 


22 








190 


13 


14 


16 


18 


19 


23 








195 


13 


M 


16 


18 


20 


23 








200 


13 


15 


17 


18 


20 


24 








205 


14 


15 


17 


19 


21 










210 


14 


t6 


18 


^9 


21 










215 


14 


16 


18 


20 


22 










220 


15 


16 


18 


20 


23 










225 


15 


17 


19 


21 


24 










230 


15 


17 


19 


21 


24 










235 


16 


18 


19 


22 












240 


16 


18 


20 


22 












24s 


16 


18 


20 


23 












250 


17 


19 


21 


23 












260 


17 


19 


22 


24 












270 


18 


20 


22 














280 


19 


21 


23 














290 


19 


22 


24 














300 


20 


23 


24 














310 


21 


23 
















320 


21 


24 
















330 


22 


















340 


23 


















350 


23 


















360 


24 



















338 DAIRYING. 



VI. MANAGEMENT OF CREAMERIES AND 
CHEESE FACTORIES. 

DIRECTIONS FOR TAKING AND PRESERVING 
COMPOSITE SAMPLES OF MIIjK IN CREAMER- 
IES AND CHEESE-FACTORIES. (Farrington). 

The modern creamery and cheese-factory uses the Bab- 
cock test for determining the quality of the milk delivered 
by each patron. The most common and satisfactory method 
of paying for the milk according to its test is to take a small 
sample of each lot of milk each day, pour this into a cov- 
ered glass jar containing a small amount of some preserva- 
tive, and at the end of a week or ten days test this composite 
sample. The essential features of the process are given in 
the following directions: 

1. Provide a pint or quart jar or bottle for each patron. 

2. Label each bottle with a number, giving the same 
number to a patron on the milk-recording sheet. 

3. Composite-test sample-bottles made for this purpose 
with a tin cover and numbered brass tag wired to the neck 
of each bottle can be obtained of creamery supply-firms. 

4. These sample-bottles should be placed on shelves 
within easy reach of the ,man at the weigh-can, and pro- 
tected from the light. 

5. A small quantity of powdered potassium bichromate, 
corrosive sublimate, formaldehyd, borax, or preservaline is 
put into each clean bottle, to keep the miik from souring until 
testing-day. Some of these preservatives are put up in 
tablet form, each tablet containing the necessary amount 
to use in one sample. 

6. After each lot of milk is poured into the factory weigh- 
can and weighed, a small amount of it is dipped from the 
can and poured into the proper sample-bottle. 

7. These samples are usually taken with a small (i-oz.) 



CREAMERIES AND CHEESE FACTORIES. 339 

tin dipper, a Scovell sampling-tube, or from a drip in the 
conductor-spout. 

8. Each lot of milk sampled must be sweet, containing 
no clots, lumps of curdled milk, or small butter-granules. 
The sample should be taken just as soon as the milk is 
weighed, and while it is evenly mixed. 

9. The use of a small (i-oz.) tin dipper for taking the 
composite sample has been proved to be practically correct. 
As the quantities of milk delivered from day to day by 
each patron vary but little, the error introduced by taking 
the same amount of milk for each sample is too small to 
be worth considering in factory work, and this method of 
composite sampling is usually adopted in separator cream- 
eries and in cheese-factories, where the payment of the 
milk is based on its quality. 

10. When it is desired to vary the size of the samples ac- 
cording to the quantity of milk delivered each day by a 
patron, it is necessary to use a "milk-thief" or a Scovell 
sampling-tube. In using either of these tubes, the size of 
the sample is regulated by the amount of milk in the weigh- 
can. In all cases cylindrical sampling-cans must be used. 

11. Continue adding a sample of each patron's milk to his 
particular jar every time he delivers milk, for a week or ten 
days ; then test this composite sample. 

12. The composite sample-jars should be kept covered, 
to prevent loss by evaporation, and in a cool, dark place. 
Every time a new portion of milk is added to the jar it 
should be given a horizontal rotary motion to mix the cream 
already formed in the jar with the milk, and to rinse off the 
cream sticking to its side. Unless this is done every time 
fresh portions of milk are added to the jar the cream on the 
milk becomes lumpy and sticks in patches to the side of 
the jar, thus making it nearly impossible to evenly dis- 
tribute this cream through the entire sample. 

13. Composite samples having patches of dried cream on 
the inside of the jar are the result of careles^jness or igno- 
rance on the part of the operator. 

14. A test of the composite sample takes the place of the 
daily tests of each lot of milk and gives accurate informa- 



340 DAIRYIi^G. 

tion regarding the average quality of the milk delivered by 
each patron during the period of sampling. 

15. The weight of butter-fat which each patron brought 
to factory in his milk during the time covered by the sam- 
pling is obtained by multiplying the total weight of milk 
delivered during the sampling period by the test of the 
composite sample, divided by 100. 

PAYMENT OF MILK AT CREAMERIES AND 
CHEESE FACTORIES.* 

Numerous systematic and extensiveexperiments by vari- 
ous scientists have proved that the value of milk for both 
butter and cheese production stands in direct proportion to 
■,ts fat content. Patrons of separator cheese and butter 
factories should therefore receive payment for the milk de- 
livered by them according to the percentage of fat in the 
milk, i.e., according to the quantity of fat delivered in their 
milk. The same applies to gathered-cream factories as 
well. 

The tables given on pp. 305-306 will aid in the calculation 
of the value of milks of different richness, according to 
prices agreed upon. In paying for the milk delivered by 
patrons, four, or, essentially, three, different methods are 
followed at different factories, all of which are just to all 
parties concerned. The methods and the directions for 
using the tables in each case are given below. The tables 
and discussions entered upon are largely (taken from Ver- 
mont Experiment Station Bulletin No. 16. 

* See Farrington-W oil. Testing Milk and its Products, i8th Ed., pp. 
204-214, 282-285. 



CREAMERIES AND CHEESE FACTORIES. 341 

METHODS OF PAYMENT FOR MIIiK AT CHEESE 
AND BUTTER FACTORIES. 

1. A certain price is to be paid per one hundred lbs. of milk 
containing a definite per cent of fat (e.g.,|i.oo per loo lbs. 
of four per cent milk). By referring to the second half of 
the table on p. 271 we find $1.00 opposite 4.00 per cent of 
fat; the figures in the same column as $1.00 then give the 
value of 100 lbs. of milk containing percentages of fat rang- 
ing from 3.00 to 5.00; e.g., 100 lbs. of 3 per cent milk is 
worth 75 cents, of 4.5 per cent milk $1.13. of 5.40 per cent 
milk $1.35, etc. 

2. A certain price is to be paid per pound of fat delivered. 
If 21 cents is the price agreed upon we multiply .21 by three, 
and the product, .63, gives the amount in dollars to be paid 
per 100 lbs. of three per cent milk. The column in which 
the figure .63 occurs opposite 3.0 per ct. is then to be used 
in the calculations as long as the price is paid, and 3.5 per 
cent milk will be paid with 73 cents per 100 lbs., 5.3 per ct. 
milk $1.10 per 100 lbs., etc. 

Example : Patron A delivers 840 lbs. of milk during one 
week, containing, according to the test made, 4.3 per cent 
fat. If the price agreed upon per pound of fat was as be- 
fore stated, he is to receive 90 cents per 100 lbs. of milk, or 
I7.56 in all. 

Patron B, sending 625 lbs. of milk testing 3.45 per cent, 
will receive 6.25 X .72 — I4.50, etc. In the table only 
tenths of per cents are given; 3.45 being half-way between 
3.40 and 3.50, for which percentages 71 and 73 cents are to 
be paid respectively, we multiply by the mean of the two 
values, or .72. If a test differs less than five-hundredths 
from any percentages given in the table, the nearest figure 
is chosen. 

3. Patrons are to be paid what is received for the butter, less 
a certain amount for cost of fnaking and marketing. Multiply 
each man's milk by the per cent of fat it contains, and the 
sum of the several products will be the total amount of fat 
contained in the day's milk. Divide the pounds of butter 
made from the milk by the pounds of fat it contained, to 



342 DAIRYIKG. 

find how much butter each pound of fat makes. Multiply- 
ing the amount received per pound of butter, less the cost 
of making, etc., by this last result will give the amount to 
be paid for each pound of fat delivered. 

Example: Suppose the patrons furnish milk containing 
in all 400 lbs. of fat, which made 460 lbs. of butter, selling 
for 27 cents per pound. The expense of making the butter 
is found to be, e.g., 4 cents per pound. 27-4= 23 cents; 
460 divided by 400 equals 1.15; 23 multiplied by 1.15 equals 
26.45, which is the amount, in cents, to be paid per pound 
of fat delivered; 26.45 X 3 = 79-35, or nearest 79 cents, is 
then the money to be paid for 100 lbs. of 3 per cent milk, 
and (see table) 90 cents for 100 lbs. of 3.40 per cent milk, 
$1.24 for 100 lbs. of 4.7 per cent milk, etc. 

4. A certain price is to be paid per lOO lbs. of milk of average 
quality. Find the total fat contained in the milk as before; 
divide this amount by the total weight of milk delivered, 
and the result will be the average per cent of fat in the 
milk. Starting from this per cent at the left of the table, 
go to the right until the price per 100 lbs. agreed upon is 
reached; the perpendicular column in which this figure is 
found is the one to be used^ Example: Suppose milk of 
average quality is to be paid $1.00 per hundred pounds, 
and the farmers furnish 8500 lbs. of milk, containing in all 
440 lbs. of fat; 440 divided by 85.00 then equals 5.18, the 
number nearest to which in the table is 5.20 per cent. To 
the right of 5.20 per cent $1.00 is found in the column 
headed .58, which column would be the one to use. 



CREAMERIES AND CHEESE FACTORIES. 



oVo 



PRICE OF 3IILK OF DIFFERENT RICHNESS PER 
100 POUNDS. 



P.ct. 
Fat. 




Price per i 


DO lbs. of Milk 


in dollars and cents. 




3.00 


1. 00 


•97 


•94 


.91 


.88 


.86 


•83 


.8t 


•79 


•77 


3.10 


1.03 


1. 00 


■97 


■94 


.91 


.89 


.86 


■ 84 


.82 


■l^ 


3.20 


1.07 


1.03 


1 .00 


•97 


94 


•91 


.89 


.86 


•85 


.82 


3-30 


1 .10 


1.07 


I.o:! 


T.OO 


•97 


•94 


.92 


.89 


•87 


.84 


340 


1-13 


l.IO 


1.06 


1.03 


1. 00 


■97 


■94 


.92 


.90 


•87 


3 50 


I- 7 


I-I3 


1.09 


I .06 


1.03 


1.00 


■97 


•95 


•93 


■89 


3.60 


1 .20 


1. 16 


I. 12 


1.09 


1.06 


1.03 


I. GO 


•97 


•95 


.92 


3 70 


1.23 


1. 19 


I. 16 


I. 12 


1.09 


1.06 


1.03 


1 .00 


.•98 


■94 


3.80 


1.27 


1.23 


1.19 


i-i5 


1. 12 


1.09 


1.06 


I ■OS 


1 .00 


■97 


3.90 


1.30 


1.26 


1.22 


1. 18 


i^i5 


I. II 


1.08 


1.06 


1.03 


1. 00 


4.00 


1-33 


I 29 


125 


1.21 


1. 18 


1.14 


l.II 


1.08 


1.06 


1.02 


4.10 


1-37 


1.32 


1.28 


1.24 


1.21 


1.17 


I. 14 


I. II 


1.08 


1-05 


4.20 


1.40 


^•35 


131 


1.27 


1.24 


1.20 


I. 17 


1.14 


1 .11 


1.07 


4-30 


1-43 


1-39 


1-34 


1.30 


1.26 


1.23 


1.19 


1. 17 


1. 14 


1. 10 


4.40 


1.47 


1.42 


••38 


^•33 


X.29 


1.26 


1.22 


1. 19 


1. 16 


1. 12 


4.50 


1.50 


1-45 


1. 41 


1.36 


1.32 


1.29 


1.25 


1.22 


1. 19 


^•i5 


4.60 


1-53 


1.48 


1.44 


139 


1-35 


131 


1.28 


1.25 


1. 21 


1.17 


4.70 


1-57 


1.52 


1.47 


1.42 


1.38 


1.34 


i^3i 


1.28 


1.24 


1.20 


4.80 


1.60 


I 55 


1.50 


1-45 


1. 41 


1^37 


1.33 


1.30 


1.27 


1.23 


4.90 


1.63 


1.58 


1-53 


1.48 


1.44 


1.40 


1.36 


1-33 


1.29 


1.25 


5.00 


1.67 


1. 61 


1.56 


1.52 


1.47 


1^43 


1-39 


..36 


1.32 


1.28 


5.10 


1.70 


T.65 


^•59 


i^55 


i.50 


1.46 


1.42 


1.39 


1-35 


1.30 


5-20 


1-73 


1.68 


1.63 


1.58 


1^53 


1.49 


1.44 


1. 41 


137 


1.33 


5-30 


1.77 


1. 71 


1.66 


1. 61 


1.56 


1. 51 


1.47 


1.44 


1.40 


'■35 


5-40 


1.80 


1.74 


1.69 


1.64 


^•59 


1.54 


150 


1.47 


1.42 


1.38 


5-50 


1.83 


1.77 


1.72 


1.67 


1.62 


^•57 


^■53 


1.50 


1-45 


I 41 


5.60 


1.87 


I 81 


1-75 


1.70 


1.65 


1.60 


1.56 


i^52 


1.48 


1.44 


5-70 


I. go 


I 84 






1.68 


i^63 


^•58 


1-55 


150 


1.46 


5.80 


1-93 


1.87 


1. 81 


1.76 


1. 71 


1.66 


1. 61 


1-57 


1-53 


1.49 


590 


1.97 


1.90 


1.84 


1.79 


1.74 


1.69 


1.64 


1.60 


1.56 


I-5I 


6.00 


2.00 


1.94 


1.88 


1.82 


1.76 


1. 71 


1.67 


1.62 


1.58 


154 


3.00 


•75 


•73 


•71 


.70 


.68 


.67 


•65 


.64 


•63 


.6i 


3.10 


78 


•75 


■73 


.72 


.70 


.69 


.67 


.66 


•65 


■ 63 


3.20 


.80 


.78 


.76 


•75 


■73 


•71 


.69 


.68 


.67 


.65 


3-30 


.83 


.80 


.78 


•77 


•75 


•74 


.72 


.70 


.69 


.67 


3-40 


.85 


•83 


.8i 


•79 


•77 


.76 


•74 


•73 


•71 


.69 


3 50 


.88 


•85 


•83 


.82 


■7') 


.78 


.76 


•75 


•73 


•71 


3.60 


.90 


.■88 


• 85 


.84 


.82 


.8u 


.78 


•77 


•75 


■73 


3-70 


•93 


.90 


.88 


.86 


.84 


•83 


.80 


•79 


•77 


•75 


3.80 


•95 


•93 


.90 


.89 


.86 


•85 


.82 


.81 


.80 


•77 


3-90 


.98 


•95 


.92 


.91 


.88 


■ 87 


•85 


.83 


.82 


•79 


4.00 


1 .00 


•97 


•95 


•93 


.91 


.89 


.87 


•85 


•84 


.81 


4.10 


1.03 


1 .00 


•97 


•96 


•93 


.91 


.89 


.87 


.86 


•^3 


4 20 


1.05 


1 .02 


1 .00 


.98 


■95 


.94 


.91 


.90 


.88 


.85 


4-30 


1.08 


1.05 


1.02 


1. 00 


.98 


.96 


■93 


.92 


.90 


.88 


4,40 


1. 10 


1.07 


1.05 


1 .02 


1. 00 


.98 


•95 


•94 


.92 


.90 



344 



DAIRY! KCt. 



PRICE OF MIL.K PER 100 POUNDS.— Cb/z^/wz/^^'. 



P. ct. 
Fat. 




Price per 


too lbs. 


of Milk, in dollars and cents. 




4-50 


^•13 


1 .10 


1.07 


1.05 


1.02 


1. 00 


•97 


.96 


•94 


.92 


4.60 


I-I5 


1 . 12 


1. 10 


I 07 


1.05 


1.02 


1. 00 


.98 


•9^ 


•94 


4.70 


1. 18 


115 


1 . 12 


1.09 


1.07 


I 04 


1.02 


I. GO 


.98 


.96 


4.80 


1.20 


1.17 


1.14 


1. 12 


1.09 


1.07 


1.07 


1.02 


1 .00 


.98 


4.90 


1.23 


1.20 


1. 17 


1. 14 


I. II 


1.09 


1.07 


1.04 


1 .02 


1. 00 


5.00 


1.25 


1.22 


1. 19 


1. 16 


1. 14 


1, 1 1 


1 .09 


I .06 


1.04 


1.02 


5 10 


1.28 


1.24 


1. 21 


1. 19 


T.16 


1 .13 


I. II 


1.09 


1.06 


1.04 


5.20 


1.30 


1.27 


1.24 


1. 21 


1. 18 


1. 16 


1-13 


I. II 


1.08 


1.06 


530 


I 33 


T.2Q 


1.26 


1.23 


1 .20 


1. 18 


1. 15 


I-I3 


1. 10 


1.08^ 


5-40 


1-35 


1.32 


1.29 


1.26 


1.23 


1.20 


1. 17 


115 


1. 12 


1 .10 


550 


1.38 


1-34 


1-31 


1.28 


1.25 


1 .22 


1.20 


1.17 


1. 14 


1. 12 


5.60 


1.40 


1-37 


1-34 


1.30 


1.27 


1.24 


1.22 


I 19 


1.17 


1. 14 


5.70 


1-43 


1-39 


1.36 


1-33 


1.30 


1.27 


T.24 


1. 21 


1. 19 


1. 16 


5-8o 


1-45 


1. 41 


1-39 


1-35 


1.32 


1.29 


1.26 


1.23 


1. 21 


1. 18 


5-90 


1.48 


1.44 


1. 41 


1.38 


^■^i 


I-3I 


1.28 


1.26 


1.23 


1.20 


6.00 


1.50 


1.46 


1-43 


1.40 


1.36 


1-33 


X.30 


1.28 


1.25 


1 .22 



.60 


•59 


•58 


•57 


•56 


•55 


•54 


•53 


•52 


•51 




.62 


.61 


.60 


•59 


.58 


•57 


•56 


•55 


•54 


•53 




.64 


•63 


.62 


.61 


.60 


•59 


•58 


.57 


•55 


•54 




.66 


•65 


•64 


•63 


.62 


.60 


•59 


.58 


•57 


•56 




.68 


.67 


.66 


•65 


•63 


.62 


.61 


.60 


•59 


•58 




.70 


.69 


.68 


.66 


•65 


.64 


-63 


.62 


.61 


•59 




.72 


•71 


.70 


.68 


.67 


.66 


•65 


.64 


.62 


.61 




•74 


•73 


•71 


.70 


•69 


.68 


.67 


.65 


.64 


•63 




.76 


•75 


•73 


.72 


•71 


.70 


.68 


.67 


.66 


•65 




.78 


•77 


•75 


•74 


•73 


•71 


.70 


.69 


• 67 


.66 




.80 


•79 


•77 


.76 


•75 


•73 


.72 


•71 


•69 


.68 




.82 


.81 


•79 


.78 


.76 


•75 


•74 


.72 


•71 


.70 




.84 


•83 


.81 


.80 


.78 


•77 


•75 


•74 


•73 


•71 




.86 


.84 


•83 


.82 


.80 


•79 


•77 


.76 


•74 


•73 




.88 


.86 


•85 


•83 


.82 


.80 


•79 


.78 


.76 


•75 




.90 


.88 


.87 


•85 


.84 


.82 


.81 


•79 


•79 


.76 




.92 


.90 


•89 


.87 


.86 


.84 


•83 


.81 


.80 


.78 




•94 


.92 


.91 


.89 


.88 


.86 


.84 


■83 


.81 


.80 




.96 


•94 


•93 


•91 


.90 


.88 


.86 


•85 


.83 


.81 




.98 


.96 


•94 


•93 


.91 


.90 


.88 


.86 


•85 


•83 




1. 00 


.98 


.,6 


•95 


•93 


•91 


.90' 


.88 


.86 


.85 




1 .02 


1. 00 


.98 


.96 


•95 


•93 


.92 


.90 


.88 


.86 




1.04 


1.02 


I. 00 


.98 


•97 


•95 


•93 


.92 


.90 


.88 




1.06 


1.04 


I 02 


1. 00 


•99 


•97 


•95 


•93 


■92 


.90 




1.08 


1.06 


1.04 


1.02 


1. 00 


•99 


•97 


•95 


•93 


.92 




I. ID 


1.08 


1.06 


1.04 


1.02 


1. 00 


•99 


•97 


•95 


•93 




I. 12 


I. ID 


1.08 


1.06 


1.04 


1. 03 


1. 00 


.98 


•97 


•95 




I. 14 


I. 12 


I. 10 


1.08 


1.06 


1.04 


1.02 


1. 00 


.98 


•97 




I. 16 


I. 14 


I. 12 


1.09 


1.07 


1.05 


1.04 


1 .02 


1 .00 


.98 




I. 18 


1.16 


'•I3 


1 .11 


1.09 


1.07 


1.05 


1.04 


1.02 


1. 00 




1.20 


I. 18 


1. 15 


1.13 


I. II 


1.09 


1.07 


1.05 


1.03 


I.O? 


I.C 



CREAMERIES AND CHEESE FACTORIES. 345 

DIRECTIONS FOR MAKING DIVIDENDS IN 
CREAMERIES AND CHEESE FACTORIES 

According to the Per Cent of Fat in Milk Delivered. 

(S. M. Babcock, in " Hoard's Dairyman.") 

Find the amount of fat contained in the milk of each 
patron for any period desired, by multiplying the pounds 
of milk expressed in hundreds by the per cent of fat found 
by the test. Add together the amount of fat from all the 
patrons, thus obtaining the total pounds of fat delivered at 
the factory. Deduct the expenses of manufacture, etc., 
from the money received from sales, and divide the re- 
mainder by the total fat. This gives the price to be paid 
for each pound of fat. Multiply the pounds of fat de- 
livered by each patron by the price; the product will be 
the amount which he is to receive. 

If it is desired to know the number of pounds of butter 
made from each patron's milk, divide the total yield of but- 
ter by the total fat delivered; the quotient will be the 
amount of butter made from one pound of fat. The fat 
delivered by each patron multiplied by this figure will give 
the pounds of butter to be credited to each patron. 

The accompanying table gives the butter yield from loo 
lbs. of milk, when the pounds of butter from one pound of 
fat range from i.io to 1.20, and for milks containing from 
3 to 6 per cent of fat. To use the table find in the upper 
horizontal line the number corresponding most nearly to the 
number of pounds of butter from one pound of fat. The 
vertical column in which this falls gives the pounds of 
butter from 100 pounds of milk containing the per cents of 
fat given in the outside columns. 

Example : A creamery receives during one month 250,000 
lbs. of milk, which contained 9531 lbs. of fat; the yield of 
butter for the same period was 10,983 lbs., which sold for 
29 cents per pound, bringing $3185.07. The expense for 
making, etc., was four cents per pound, amounting to 
$439.32, leaving $2745.75 to be divided among the patrons. 
Dividing this sum by 9531, the total number of pounds of 
fat gives 28.8 cents per pound for the fat. This multiplied 
by the number of pounds of fat in each patron's milk gives 
the amount which he should be paid. 



346 



DAIRYING. 



The number of pounds of butter, 10,983, divided by 9531, 
the number of pounds of fat, gives 1.152 pounds of butter 
from each pound of fat. The column headed 1.15 in the 
table is nearest to this ratio, and will therefore give the 
butter obtained from 100 lbs. of milk containing different 
per cents of fat. 

If a patron delivered 9420 lbs. of milk containing 3.2 pel 
cent of fat during the period considered, his milk would 
have contained 301.44 lbs. oi Tat, which at 28.8 cents per 
pound would have amounted to $86.81. It would have 
made 301.44 X 1.152 = 347.26 lbs. of butter. In the column 
headed 1.15 in the table, opposite 3.2 per cent of fat, we 
find 3.68, which is the number of pounds of fat from 100 
lbs. of this patron's milk. The error from the use of the 
table in this way will never amount to more than ^ ounce 
per 100 lbs. of milk. 

Yield of Butter from One Hnndred Lbs. of Milk, in Lbs. 



c 


Lbs. 0^ Butter per Pound of Fat. 






t .10 


1 .11 


1. 12 


i.:3 


1. 14 


1-^5 


1. 16 


1.17 


1. 18 


1. 19 


1.20 




3-0 


3-3° 


3-33 


3 -.36 


3-39 


3-42 


3-45 


3-48 


3-51 


3-54 


3-57 


3 -60 


3-0 


3-1 


3-41 


3-441 


3-472 


3-503 


3-534 


3 - 565 


3-596 


3.627 


3-658 


3-^^3 


3-72 


3-1 


3-2 


3-52 


3-552 


3-584 


3.616 


3.648 


3 680 


3-712 


3 744 


V776 


3 808 


3.84 


3-2 


3-3 


3-63 


3.663 


3.696 


3-729 


3.762 


3-795 


3 828 


3.861 


3-804 


3 927 


3-96 


3 3 


3-4 


3-74 


3-774 


3.808 


3-842 


3.S76 


3.910 


3-944 


3-978 


4.012 


4.046 


4.08 


3-4 


3-5 


3-8s 


3-885 


3.920 


3-955 


3-990 


4 025 


4.060 


4.095 


4.130 


4.165 


4.20 


3-1 


3.6 


3-96 


3-996 


4.032 


4.o63| 4 104 


4.140 


4.176 


4.212 


4.248 


4-284 


4-32 


3-6 


3-7 


4.07 


4.107 


4.144 


4.18. 


4.218 


4-255 


4.292 


4-329 


4.366 


4-403 


4-44 


3.7 


3 8 


4.18 


4.218 


4.256 


4.294 


4-332 


4-370 


4.408 


4.446 


4-484 


4-522 


d.56 


3.8 


3-9 


4.29 


4-329 


4.36S 


4.407 


4.446 


4-485 


4-524 


4 563 


4.602 


4.641 


4.68 


3-9 


40 


4.40 


4.440 


4 480 


4.520 


4 560 


4.600 


4.640 


4.680 


4-720 


4.760 


4.80 


4.0 


4. 1 


4-51 


4-551 


4-592 


4-633 


4-674 


4-715 


4-756 


4.797 


4.838 


4.870 


4.92 


4.1 


4.2 


4.62 


4.662 


4.704 


4.746 


4.788 


4-8-,o 


4.872 


4.914 


4-956 


4 998 


5.04 


4.2 


4-3 


4-73 


4 773 


4.816 


4-859 


4.902 


4-945 


4.988 


5-031 


5-074 


5. 117 


5.16 


4 3 


4-4 


4-84 


4.884 


4.928 


4.972 


5.016 


5.060 


5.104 


5.148 


5.192 


5-236 


5-23 


4.4 


4-5 


4-95 


4-995 


5.040 


5-085 


5-130 


5-^75 


5.220 


5-265 


5-310 


5'355 


5-40 


4-1 


46 


5-o6 


5.106 


5-152 


5.198 


5-244 


5.290 


5-336 


5-382 


5.428 


5-474,5-52 


4-6 


4-7 


5-17 


5-217 


5.264 


5-3" 


5-358 


5-405 


5-452 


5-499 


5-546 


5-59315-64 


^ I 


4.8 


5.28 


5-328 


5-376 


5-424 


5-472 


5-520 


5.568 


5.616 


5-664 


5-712 


5-76 


4 8 


4.9 


5-39 


5-439 


5.488 


5-537 


5-586 


5-635 


5-684 


5-733 


5.782 


5-831 


S.88 


4-9 


50 


5-50 


5-55° 


5.600 


5 650 


5.700 


5-750 


5.800 


5.850 


5.900 


5.950 


6.00 


5-0 


5-1 


5-61 


5.661 


5712 


5-763 


5 814 


5-865 


5.916 


5-967 


6.018 


6.o6q 


6.12 


5-1 


5-2 


5 72 


5-772 


6.824 


5-876 


5.928 


5.980 


6.032 


6.084 


6 136 


6.188 


6.24 


5-2 


5-3 


5.83 


5-883 


5-93'5 


5-986 


6.042 


0.095 


6.148 


6.201 


6.254 


6.307 


6.36 


5-3 


5-4 


5-94 


5-994 


6.048 


6.102 


6.156 


6.2IO 


6.264 


6 318 


6.372 


6.426 


6.48 


5-4 


5-S 


6.05 


6.105 


6.160 


6.215 


6 270 


6.325 


6.380 


6.435 


6.490 


6-545 


6.60 


5-| 


5-6 


6.16 


6.216 


6.272 


6.328 


6-384 


6.440 


6.496 


6.552 


6.608 


6 664 


6.72 


5-6 


5-7 


6.27 


6.327 


6.384 


6.44X 


6 498 


7-55=; 


6 612 


6.669 


6.726 


6.783 


6 84 


5-7 


5-8 


6.3S 


6.438 


6 49f 


6.554 


6.612 


6.670 


6.72S 


6.786 


6.844 


6.902 


6.96 


5-8 


5.9 


6.4? 


6.549 


6.608 


6.667 


6.726 


6.785 


6.844 


6.903 


6.962 


7.021 


7.08 


^•9 


6.0 


6.6c 


6.66c 


6.72c 


6.78c 


6.840I 6.900I 6.96c 


7.020 


7.08c 


7.140 


7.20 


6.0 



CHEESE. 



347 



TABLE SHOWING AVERAGE PER CENT OF FAT 
IN 3IIIjK. (Partly after Martiny.) 





Sum of 


c 




Sum of 






Sum of 


c 








4J tfl 
































li CQ 


i 


w 


aj 


CUbn 


i2 


1 


m 


^t 


«j 


i2 


iG 


^^ 




S 






M 




00 






(A 




« 


<u 


u 


>" 


u 


<u 


<U 


>• 
< 

3.30 


<u 


V 


V 


< 


H 


H 


H 


< 


H 


H 


H 


H 


H 


H 


lO 


^ 


8.70 


2.90 


10 


'^ 


ro 


in 


-i- 


m 


14.50 


11.60 


16.50 


13.20 


9.90 


18.50 


14.80 


11.10 


3.70 


55 


64 


73 


91 


55 


24 


93 


31 


55 


84 


13 


71 


60 


68 


76 


92, 


60 


28 


96 


32 


60 


88 


16 


72 


65 


72 


79 


93 


65 


32 


99 


33 


65 


92 


19 


73 


70 


76 


82 


94 


70 


36 


10.02 


34 


70 


96 


22 


74 


14-75 


11.80 


8.85 


2 95 


16.75 


13.40 


10.05 


3.35 


18.75 


15.00 


11.25 


3.75 


80 


84 


88 


96 


80 


44 


08 


36 


80 


04 


z8 


76 


85 


88 


91 


H' 


85 


48 


II 


37 


85 


08 


3' 


77 


90 


9^ 


94 


98 


90 


^l 


14 


38 


90 


12 


34 


78 


95 


96 


97 


99: 


95 


56 


17 


39 


95 


16 


37 


79 


15.00 


12.00 


9.00 


3 OOi 


17.00 


13.60 


10.20 


3.40 


19.00 


15.20 


11.40 


3. SO 


05 


04 


03 


01 


05 


64 


23 


41 


05 


24 


43 


81 


10 


08 


06 


02 


10 


68 


26 


42 


10 


28 


46 


82 


15 


12 


09 


03 1 


15 


72 


29 


43 


15 


32 


49 


83 


20 


16 


12 


04 


20 


76 


32 


44 


20 


36 


52 


84 


15-25 


12.20 


9-15 


3 Oo' 


17-25 


13.80 


10.35 


3 45 


19.25 


15.40 


11-55 


3.85 


30 


24 


18 


o6j 


30 


84 


38 


46 


30 


44 


58 


86 


35 


28 


5i 


07 


35 


88 


41 


47 


35 


48 


61 


87 


40 


32 


24 


08 


40 


92 


44 


48 


40 


52 


64 


88 


45 


36 


27 


09 


45 


96 


47 


49 


45 


56 


67 


89 


15-50 


12.40 


9- 30 


3.10| 


17-50 


14.00 


10.50 


3.50 


19-50 


15.60 


11.70 


3.90 


55 


44 


33 


II 


55 


04 


53 


51 


55 


64 


73 


91 


60 


48 


36 


12 


60 


08 


56 


52 


60 


68 


76 


92 


65 


52 


39 


13 


65 


12 


59 


53 


65 


72 


79 


93 


70 


56 


42 


14 


70 


16 


62 


54 


70 


76 


82 


94 


15-75 


12.60 


9-45 


3.15 


17-75 


14,20 


10.65 


3.55 


19-75 


15.80 


11.85 


3 95 


h 


64 


48 


16 


80 


24 


68 


56 


80 


84 


88 


96 


i5 


68 


51 


17 


85 


28 


71 


57 


85 


88 


9^ 


97 


p 


72 


54 


i8j 


90 


32 


74 


58 


90 


92 


94 


98 


S5 


76 


57 


19 


95 


36 


77 


59 


95 


96 


97 


99 


16.00 


12.80 


9.60 


3 20 


18 00 


14.40 


10.80 


3.60 


20.06 


16.00 


12. 00 


4 00 


05 


84 


63 


21 


05 


44 


83 


61 


05 


04 


03 


01 


lO 


88 


66 


22 


10 


48 


86 


62 


10 


08 


06 


02 


15 


'^l 


69 


23 


15 


52 


89 


63 


15 


12 


09 


03 


20 


96 


72 


24 


20 


56 


92 


64 


20 


16 


12 


04 


16.25 


13 00 


9-75 


3.25' 


18.25 


14.60 


10.95 


3.65 


20.25 


16.20 


12.15 


4 05 


30 


04 


78 


26 


30 


64 


98 


66 


30 


24 


18 


06 


35 


08 


81 


27 


35 


68 


11.01 


67 


35 


28 


21 


S 


40 


12 


84 


28 


40 


72 


04 


68 


40 


32 


24 


45 


16 


87 


., 


,3 


76 


07 


69 


45 


36 


27 


09 



348 



DAIRYING. 



TABLE SHOWING AVERAGE PER CENT OF FAT 

IN Ml\M..—{Contimied.) 





















Sum of 


c 


Sam of 


c 


Sum of 




c 






u . 






U^ 






CJ . 


«i 


trt 


2 


^i> 


oj 


uj 


="■ ^^ 


tn 


i2 


(fl 


l^ 


4-> 


M 




0H^ 




t^ 


t^ ' ^ 


GO 




05 


H 




E^ 


< 

4.10 


I 


H 


,2 1.0 

ro 1 ^ 


H 


I 


1) 


< 


IT) 


'i- 


cr, 


10 


■* 


10 


•* 


ro 


20.50 


16.40 


12.30 


22.50 


18.00 


13.50 4.50 


24.50 


19.60 


14.70 


4.90 


55 


44 33 


11 


55 


04 


53! 51 


55 


64 


73 


91 


60 


48 36 


12 


60 


08 


561 52 


60 


68 


76 


92 


65 


52: 39 


13 


65 


12 


59 53 


65 


72 


79 


93 


70 


56 42 


14 


70 


16 


62 54 


70 


76 


82 


94 


20.75 


16.60 12.45 


4 15 


22.75 


18.20 


13 65 4.55 


24-75 


19.80 


14.85 


4.95 


80 


641 48 


16 


80 


24 


68 56 


80 


84 


88 


96 


85 


68 51 


17 


85 


28 


71 57 


85 


88 


91 


97 


90 


72 


54 


18 


90 


32 


74 i 58 


90 


^l 


94 


98 


95 


76 


57 


19 


95 


36 


77, 59 


95 


96 


97 


99 


21. 00 


16.80 12.60 


4 20 


23.00 


18.40 


13.80 4. CO 


25.00 


20.00 


15.00 


5.00 


05 


84 1 63 


21 


05 


44 


83 6, 


05 


04 


03 


01 


10 


88} 66 


22 


10 


48 


86; 62 


10 


08 


06 


02 


15 


92' 69 


23 


15 


52 


89 63 


15 


12 


09 


03 


20 


96 72 


24 


20 


56 


92 64 


20 


16 


12 


04 


21.25 


1 
17.00 12.75 


4.25 


23.25 


18.60 


13-95 4-66 


25-25 


20.20 


15-15 


5 05 


30 


04' 78 


26 


30 


64 


98 66 


30 


24 


18 


06 


35 


08, 81 


27 


35 


68 


14.01} 67 


35 


• 28 


21 


07 


40 


12' 84 


28 


40 


72 


04! 68 


40 


32 


24 


08 


45 


16 87 


29 


45 


76 


07 69 


45 


36 


27 


<->y 


21.50 


17.20 12.90 


4.30 


23.50 


18.80 


i4.io4.;o 


25-50 


20.40 


15-30 


5 10 


55 


24 93 


31 


55 


84 


13 71 


55 


44 


33 


1 1 


60 


28 


96 


32 


60 


88 


■ 16, 72 


60 


48 


36 


12 


65 


32 


99 


33 


65 


92 


19' 73 


65 


52 


39 


13 


70 


36 


13 02 


34 


70 


96 


22 74 


70 


56 


42 


14 


21.75 


17.40 


13-05 


4.35 


23-75 


19.00 


14.25 4.75 


25-75 


20.60 


15-45 


5 15 


80 


44 


08 


36 


80 


04 


28 76 


80 


64 


48 


16 


85 


48 


II 


37 


85 


08 


31 77 


85 


68 


51 


17 


90 


52 


M 


38 


90 


12 


34' 78 


90 


72 


54 


18 


95 


56 


17 


39 


95 


16 


37, 79 


95 


76 


57 


19 


22.00 


17.60 


13.20 


4.40 


24.00 


19.20 


14.40 4.80 


26.00 


20.80 


15.60 


5.20 


05 


64 


23 


41 


05 


24 


43; 81 


05 


84 


63 


21 


10 


68 


26 


42 


10 


28 


46 82 


10 


88 


66 


22 


15 


72 


29 


43 


15 


32 


49 83 


15 


92 


69 


23 


20 


76 


32 


44 


20 


36 


52 84 


20 


96 


72 


24 


22.25 


17.80 


13-35 


4 45 


24.25 


19.40 


14-55 4-85 


26.25 


21.00 


15-75 


5.25 


30 


84 


38 


46 


30 


44 


58 86 


30 


04 


78 


26 


35 


88 


41 


47 


35 


43 


61 87 


35 


08 


81 


27 


40 


92 


44 


48 


40 


52 


64' 88 


40 


12 


84 


28 


45 


96 


47 


49 


45 


5. 


67 89 


45 


.e 


87 


29 



CREAMERIES AND CHEESE FACTORIES. 349 



SUGGESTIONS TO PATRONS OF CHEESE FAC- 
TORIES AND CREAMERIES. (Curtis.) 

Care of Milk. 

1. All milk for the cheese factory must be clean, pure, 
and wholesome, or the cheese will be bad. One hundred 
pounds of bad milk will injure 10,000 pounds of good milk. 

2. The law is very strict against watering or skimming. 
A fine of $10.00 to $100.00 is imposed if convicted. 

3. After a cow has dropped her calf, the milk should not 
be taken to the factory until the tenth milking. 

4. Milk run through an aerator as soon as drawn from 
the cow, in open air, is better for cheese and butter making 
than when set in a tub of water and dipped. By any means 
at your command thoroughly air the milk until cooled. 

5. Stagnant water, dead carcasses, or filth of any kind in 
the pasture or barn-yard produces tainted milk. For this 
reason set the can of night's milk in a clean place. 

6. Milk with clean hands ; never wet them with milk; it 
is positively filthy. 

7. See that the cow's udder is brushed clean and free 
from fine dirt and dust before milking. 

8. Never mix the night's and morning's milk. It will 
many times sour them both by pouring the warm milk into 
the cold. 

9. Small cans (10 to 15 gallons) are much preferred to 
larger ones, as the milk is kept in a better condition. 

10. Whey should be taken home in separate cans from 
that in which the milk is brought in. 

11. If whey is taken home in the milk-cans, empty at 
once, wash with tepid water, then scald and turn them out 
to the sun. 

12. Insist that the cheese-maker keep the whey-vat clean, 
by washing and scalding at least twice a week. 

13. Insist that your factory shall take in milk by the 
Babcock test, paying each patron according to what he de^ 
livers. 

14. Use a Babcock test yourself and know just what you 
produce: turn off the poor cows and fill their places with 



350 DAIRYING. 

good ones. Every patron should know for himself whether 
he is boarding unprofitable cows. There is no better way 
of knowing this than by the use of the Babcock test at the 
barn. The cost of the test is but little, but its instruction 
is very valuable. 

15. It should always be remembered that pure milk can 
only be had through healthy cows, pure feed, pure water, 
pure air, and cleanly handling. Every patron is affected 
in the cash outcome by the way his brother patrons pro- 
duce and handle their milk, hence the necessity of each 
adhering to sound rules based on sound dairy sense. There 
is not a first-class factory in the land where good prices are 
obtained for cheese but what the patrons practise thorough 
cleanliness in the care of milk. Remember, it is a matter 
of profit to each to do this. 

Care of Cows. 

Pay special attention to the comfort of your cows. Do 
not let them remain out in cold rain-storms ; it will reduce 
the flow of milk. Feed liberally. The cow must at all 
times have all the good feed she can eat and digest. Be 
sure and provide some soiling-crop against the July and 
August drought; if the cow shrinks then you will lose money 
in the fall, when butter and cheese are high. Oats and 
peas, sweet corn or field corn, drilled 3^ feet apart, are a 
good soiling-crop. 

A silo is a great help in the economical production of 
cow feed. Thousands of successful dairymen have proved 
this. It is no longer an experiment. 

Dairy farming at high profit calls for close study con- 
cerning the cow, concerning her feed, and how to produce 
it at the best and cheapest. Every dairy neighborhood 
will show men who make nearly double the profit from the 
business that others do. We believe that it will pay every 
man to be intelligent and as well posted as he can be on these 
important questions. We must bring up the grade of our 
reputation by making better butter and cheese. This will 
bring on a larger and better paving demand. To cheat the 



CREAMERIES AND CHEESE FACTORIES. 351 

consumer with poor goods will, in the end, destroy the 
business. Better dairymen, better milk, better products, 
better reputation in the world's markets, will surely bring 
better profits, and is the only true road to Dairy Success. 

BY-LATirs AND RULES FOU CO-OPERATIVE 
CREAMERY ASSOCIATIONS. 

I. This association shall be known as the Co- 
operative Creamery Association. 

II. The purpose of the association shall be to locate, 
establish and carry on the manufacture and sale of milk 
products, in such a manner as will conduce to the greatest 
convenience and profit of the producers over the greatest 

amount of territory in the town of and vicinity. Also 

to purchase, use, and hold real and personal estate neces- 
sary for the transaction of the business of the association. 

III. The capital stock of the association shall be 

dollars, divided into shares of ten dollars each. 

IV. This association shall be co-operative. Cream and 
milk may be purchased or accepted from any person not a 
stockholder on the same terms and conditions as may be 
prescribed for stockholders. 

V. Any person directly engaged in agricultural pursuits 
may become a member of this association by taking one or 
more shares of the stock of the association. 

VI. I. The regular meetings of the association shall be 

held semi-annually, viz., on the first Mondays in and 

in each year, at such time and place as the board 

of directors may determine; and notice of such meeting 
shall be given by the clerk to each member by mail seven 
days at least previous to the date of said meeting. 2. 
Special meetings may be called either by the president, 
with the advice and consent of a majority of the directors, 
or upon written request of one third of the stockholders of 
the association, upon seven days* notice as above. 3. 
Meetings of the board of directors may be called by the 
president or by any two directors. 

VII. I. The officers of the association shall consist of a 
president, clerk, treasurer, five directors, and two auditors. 
2. The president shall be chosen annually by the board of 



352 DAIRYING. 

directors, by written ballot, at the regular meeting in 
October. 3. The clerk, treasurer, board of directors, and 
auditors shall be chosen by the stockholders annually, by 
written ballot, at the regular meeting in October, and all 
officers shall hold office till others are chosen and qualified 
in their stead. Vacancies in the above-named offices may 
be filled at any meeting of the stockholders ; in the mean- 
time by the board of directors. In case of the absence of 
the clerk a temporary clerk may be chosen and qualified 
in his stead. 

VIII. At any regularly called meeting of the association, 
nine of the members thereof, and at any meeting of the 
board of directors, three members thereof, shall constitute 
a quorum for the transaction of business. A less number 
may adjourn from time to time. 

IX. It shall be the duty of the president, who shall be a 
director, to preside at all meetings of the association and of 
the board of directors, preserve order therein, put all ques- 
tions, announce all decisions, and, in case of an equal divi- 
sion, to give the casting vote. He shall receive and safely 
preserve all bonds required of the officers of the associa- 
tion and sign all certificates or documents issued by the 
association or board of directors. In the absence of the 
president, it shall be the duty of one of the board of direc- 
tors, in order of their seniority, to preside at any meeting. 

X. It shall be the duty of the clerk to attend all meet- 
ings of the association and of the board of directors, and 
to keep a correct record of the same, which record shall be 
open for the inspection of any member. He shall give 
notice of all meetings and of all appointments on commit- 
tees, to each member thereof, and to each officer chosen, of 
his election; and shall serve all such other notices as ap- 
pertain to his office or as may be directed from time to time 
by the association or board of directors. He shall attest 
all certificates or documents issued signed by the president, 
shall file all bills and reports and such other documents as 
may be ordered to be filed, and shall carry on all such 
correspondence as may be directed ; shall act as secretary 
pf all committees when called upon; shall keep a correct 



CREAMERIES AND CHEESE FACTORIES. 353 

financial account between the association and its members, 
and shall have charge of all property not otherwise disposed 
of. He shall give such bonds for the faithful performance 
of his duty, and receive such compensation for his services, 
as the board of directors may determine. 

XI. It shall be the duty of the treasurer to receive all 
money belonging to the association, giving his receipt 
therefor. He shall draw all money for the payment of 
claims against the association under the direction of the 
board of directors. He shall make a report to the board of 
directors at such times as they may require. He shall per- 
form all duties required of him by the laws of the common- 
wealth and shall give such bonds for the faithful perform- 
ance of his duty as the board of directors may require. 

XII. It shall be the duty of the board of directors to 
attend to the general affairs of the association, invest the 
funds of the same, appoint such other agents and officers 
as in their judgment the interests of the association require, 
and fix all compensations. They shall keep or cause to be 
kept a correct account of all cream or milk furnished by 
the stockholders or patrons, and a correct account of all 
sales. They shall prescribe the rules and regulations 
governing the collection and delivery of the cream and 
milk; may cause the quality of the same to be tested as 
often as may be deemed expedient; may authorize the prem- 
ises of any stockholder or patron to be inspected, and 
may reject and refuse to collect or receive any cream or 
milk that is unsatisfactory or not furnished in compliance 
with the prescribed regulations. They shall establish 
prices and have full power over the business of the associa- 
tion, and shall in all cases pursue such measures as in their 
judgment will tend to the best interests of the association. 
They shall make a full report of their doings, and a full 
statement of the business at each regular meeting, or 
whenever called upon to do so by vote of the stockholders. 

XIII. The duties of the auditors shall be to audit all 
accounts of the association, making a report to the board 
of directors at the time of the regular meetings, and at such 
other times as they may require. 



354 DAIRYING. 

XIV. The net profits of the business of the association, 
after such deductions have been made as the laws of the 
commonwealth require, shall be divided />ro rata among the 
stockholders, according to the number of shares held by 
each. \_Note. — It is understood that the profits shall not 
exceed 6 per cent on capital, all receipts in excess of this 
sum and necessary reserves being declared in payment to 
patrons for cream or milk furnished.] 

XV. I. Any person doing business for the association or 
incurring expense therefor shall receive a just remunera- 
tion for such services or expense. 2. All documents issued 
by the association shall bear the seal thereof, said seal to 
be in charge of the clerk. 3. The directors shall procure 
a corporate seal. 4. No member of the association can 
transfer his stock to any person not directly engaged in 
agricultural pursuits. 5. In case shares are transferred by 
orke person to another, the certificate thereof must be sur- 
rendered to the treasurer, and the board of directors shall 
cause another certificate to be issued to the person to whom 
the transfer is made. 

XVI. These by-laws shall not be altered or amended unless 
such alteration or amendment be proposed in writing one 
meeting previous to action being taken ; provided also that 
two thirds of the members vote in the aflSrmative. 

BY-LiAWS AND RULES FOR CO-OPERATIVE 
CHEESE FACTORIES. 

Article i. This association shall be known as the — — — 
Cheese Factory Association. 

Art. 2. There shall be two meetings held yearly at the 
factory — one in the spring and one in the fall or winter, to be 
called by the president. 

Art. 3. At the first meeting in each year there shall be 
chosen by the patrons a president and a treasurer and sales- 
man. 

Art. 4. The salesman and treasurer shall sell all the cheese, 
and as soon as he shall have sold and collected for one month's 
make of cheese, he shall, after paying the proprietor for mak- 



CREA.MERIES AND CHEESE FACTORIES. 355 

ing and deducting the other expenses, divide the proceeds pro 
rata, according to the amount of butter-fat delivered by each 
patron, as determined by the Babcock test. 

Art, 5. It shall also be the duty of the treasurer and sales- 
man to keep the books of the association, and make final divi- 
dend yearly to all the patrons whenever all the cheese is sold 
and paid for. He shall also keep a milk book, showing the 
number and amount of cheese made each month, to be taken 
from the factory's books. Said treasurer's milk and cheese 
books shall be subject to the inspection of the patrons and tne 
president. 

Art. 6. The manager shall keep an accurate account with 
each patron of the number of pounds of milk delivered each 
day and make and record daily (every week or month) tests of 
same to show its fat content; also an account of the number and 
amount of cheese made, which accounts shall be subject to the 
inspection of the officers and patrons. 

Art. 7. The president shall be authorized to preside over 
the entire transactions of patrons or officers^ and constitute a 
committee to investigate all matters pertaining to said factory, 
and if any contingency should arise, he shall be authorized to 
bring suit in law against any delinquent. 

Art. 8. The manager (cheese-maker) shall be authorized to 
criticise all milk offered, and he shall reject the same if in his 
judgment said milk is unfit to run into cheese; also to deter- 
mine the fat content of any milk, and if found to be below the 
legal standard of the State, shall report the same to the presi- 
dent, whose duty it shall be to send out a committee of three to 
the premises of said delinquent, witnessing the transit of the 
milk on the ensuing day from the cow to the factory, which 
shall again be tested as on the previous day, and if found to 
vary, the party in question shall be adjudged guilty of having 
diluted or adulterated the same, as shall appear, and shall forfeit 
and pay to the association as liquidated damages the sum of 
twenty- five dollars for each and every day such dilution shall 
occur. 

Art. 9. The president shall also have power to call special 
meetings of the patrons at any time he may deem it necessary, 
and he shall be required to call a meeting of the patrons when- 



35 G DAIRYIKG. 

ever a request is presented to him signed by ten patrons. 
Whenever a meeting is to be called, the president shall give 
patrons at least two days' notice. 

Art. 10. The action of the treasurer and salesman in regard 
to selling or holding cheese shall be governed by a vote of a 
majority of the patrons. If no vote is taken, he is to exercise 
his best judgment in the matter. 

Art. II. In voting at any annual or special meeting of this 
association the patrons shall be allowed one vote for every cow 
the milk of which is brought to the factory. [This may be 
altered to one vote on each share of the capital stock or one 
vote to each shareholder.] 

Art. 12. The treasurer and salesman shall attend all meet 
ings of the association whenever possible, and shall take min 
utes of the proceedings, and place the same on file in his office, 
and in other respects act as secretary. In case he should bt* 
absent, a temporary secretary may be chosen. In case tho 
president is absent at any meeting, a temporary president may 
be chosen for a presiding officer. 

RULES FOR PATRONS AND INSTRUCTIONS TO 
CREAM OR MILK GATHERERS. 

These rules may be made to ?pply to either whole-milk or gathered 
cream creameries. 

Feeding. — We insist upon only such food being fed to cow? 
as will produce the largest and best quality of milk or cream. 
Turnips, onions, cabbage, or anything likely to injure the 
quality of milk, cream, or butter is prohibited. 

Milking. — Cows must be carefully cleaned before milking, 
to avoid odors that taint the milk. The milk must be strained 
through two strainers — one of them cloth — before going into 
the cans. Thorough cleanliness must be observed in every- 
thing. 

Creamers and Cans. — Creamers must be kept in a place free 
from odors, and cleanliness maintained in their vicinity. Tanks 
and cans must be kept sweet and clean, and the water free and 
clear. Cans must be washed, then scolded every time they are 
used. The water in the creamers should not go below 45 de- 
crees in summer and 40 degrees in winter. 



CREAMERIES AND CHEESE FACTORIES. 357 

Setting Milk. — All cans must be filled full of fresh milk, so 
far as possible, and immediately placed in the tank. After cans 
are set in water they must not be disturbed. Patrons are not 
allowed to draw ofif the milk except on Sundays, or with per- 
mission from the trustees. 

Mixing Milk.— Csins must not be partly filled at one milking 
and after standing long enough for the cream to begin to sepa- 
rate be filled with milk from another milking, or with anything 
whatever. After a can has once been set it must not in any 
way be disturbed or meddled with, nor the milk drawn off by 
the patrons, except on Sunday. 

Nighfs Milk. — When milk is delivered but once each day, 
the cans containing the night's milk must be set in cold water 
immediately after milking and the milk thoroughly stirred by 
using a dipper and pouring until the milk is thoroughly cooled. 
A better plan is to use a cooler to thoroughly cool and aerate 
the milk before it is put in the cans. The night's milk must be 
left setting in cold water until it is hauled to the creamery. 

Cream and Milk Gatherers. — Cream and milk gatherers are 
forbidden to take any cream or milk which is dirty, or for any 
reason, in their judgment, is not of satisfactory quality or con- 
dition, or which has been in any way so treated as to indicate 
that an attempt has been made to interfere with the proper and 
natural separation of the cream, or of iis being correctly counted 
on the gauge, or in violation of these rules. 

Any patron found neglecting or violating any of these rules 
must at once be reported to some one of the board of trustees 
or directors, and his cream or milk must not again be taken till 
he has satisfied the trustees that his neglect was, for. good rea- 
sons, excusable ; and if any patron shall more than once be so 
reported it shall be deemed a sufficient reason for refusal to 
again receive his cream at all. 

Cream or milk gatherers are especially directed to take all 
possible pains to discover all violations or neglect of any of 
these rules, and strictly enforce them in every case. 

These rules and instructions are found by experience and 
observation to be necessary for the protection of the association 
and the best good of all its members. Copies thereof will be 
securely posted conveniently near each tank where milk cans 
are set, so that ignorance can be no excuse for neglect. 



358 



DAIRYING. 



Patrons are requested to notify the board of trustees or direc- 
tors if any cream or milk gatherer is in any way delinquent or 
careless in his observance of these instructions. 

Patrons who are not disposed to be governed by these rules 
are requested to so advise the trustees or directors, and the 
treasurer will make prompt settlement with any who wish to 
withdraw. 

By order of the trustees or directors. 

« o o o . , President. 

eeea... o.ooo,.., TrCaS. 



PART III. GENERAL TOPICS. 



I. CONSTITUTIONS OF AGRICULTURAL 
ASSOCIATIONS. 

CONSTITUTION AND BY-LAWS OF AGRICULTlIRAIi 
CLUBS. 

Together With Rules of Order, and Order of Business. 

(McKerrow.) 
Constitution. 

Preamble. — We, the undersigned, interested in agricul- 
ture and horticulture, and desirous to secure the benefits to 
be derived from organization, for the purpose of practical 
discussion and the promotion of the common interests 
of our pursuits, do subscribe the following Constitution: 

Article I. Name. — This association shall be styled and 
known as the Agricultural Club. 

Article II. Objects. — The objects of this club are to ad^ 
vance the knowledge and promote the general interests of 
agriculture and horticulture in this community. 

Article III. Officers. — The officers shall consist of a 
president, vice-president, recording secretary, correspond- 
ing secretary, treasurer, and librarian. 

Article IV. Duties of Officers. — Section i. It shall be 
the duty of the president to preside at all meetings of the 
club; to enforce a due observance of the Constitution, By- 
laws, and Rules of Order; to assign topics of discussion at 
the suggestion of members. He shall neither make nor 
second a,ny motion, but shall have the privilege of taking 
part in debate; and while he has the floor the meeting for 
the time being shall be in charge of the vice-president; 
but the president shall have no vote unless the club shall 
be equally divided. 

Section 2. It shall be the duty of the vice-president to 
preside at all times 'when the president is absent, and while 
he shall have temporarily vacated the chair. 



360 GENERAL TOPICS. 

Section 3. The recording secretary shall keep a record 
of the proceedings of the club; also the name of each 
member, and shall on the regular last meeting of each year 
prepare and read the names of all members; and he shall 
have charge of the archives of the club. 

Section 4. The corresponding secretary shall conduct 
the correspondence of the club and act as recording secre- 
tary in the absence of that officer. He shall also render 
such assistance to the recording secretary as that officer 
may require in the performance of his duties. 

Section 5. The treasurer shall keep all money belong- 
ing to the club, and disburse the same under the direction 
of the club, according to its laws. He shall collect all fees 
and dues of members, and shall at some time during the 
month of December of each year notify such as are in 
arrears and request their dues. He shall keep a correct 
account of all moneys received and expended. 

Section 6. The librarian shall have charge of the li- 
brary and its appurtenances, regulating the use of the same 
by the members, according to the rules and regulations 
prescribed. He shall make a written report of the condi- 
tion of the library at the annual meeting, and at such 
other times as the club may direct. He shall, within one 
week, deliver to his successor in office the library and its 
appurtenances, and all books, papers, and documents in 
his possession belonging to the club. 

Article V. Elections. — All elections for officers shall be 
by ballot, and shall be held at the first regular meeting in 
January of each year; and their terms shall commence im- 
mediately after their election, to continue for one year, or 
until others are elected to fill their places. In the case of 
vacancy occurring in any office the club shall go imme- 
diately into an election to fill the same. A majority of all 
the votes cast shall be necessary to a choice. 

Article VI. Membership. — Section i. Any person inter- 
ested in agriculture or horticulture, and of good moral 
standing, may become a member of this club by signing 
this Constitution, agreeing to support all laws and regula- 
tions made in pursuance thereof, and paying fifty cents 
annually into the treasury. 

Section 2. Honorary membership may be conferred in 



CONSTITUTIONS OF AGRICULTURAL ASSOCIATIONS. 361 

consideration of eminent character and services in honor 
of agriculture or horticulture and shall be conferred with- 
out fee or dues. The recipient shall not be entitled to 
hold office, but may take part in all discussions and vote 
on all questions. 

Article VII. Amendments. — No alteration, amendment, 
or addition can be made to this Constitution, neither can 
any part of it be repealed, without a vote of two thirds of 
the members present. Any proposed alteration, amend- 
ment, addition, or repeal must be submitted in writing, 
filed with the recording secretary, and read at two regu- 
lar meetings next preceding that on which the vote is taken. 

By-laws. 

Article I. This club shall assemble weekly (or twice a 

month) on evenings from November ist to April 

ist, and at such intervals thereafter as may be agreed 
upon by the club, or appointed by the president. The 
time a-nd place of meeting may be altered at any regular 
meeting of the club by a vote of two thirds of all of the 
members present. 

Article II. Section i. Seven members shall constitute 
a quorum for the transaction of business of the club. A 
less number may meet, maintain a discussion on any topic, 
and adjourn to any given time. 

Section 2. Persons present, not members of the club, 
may be invited to take part in all discussions of agricul. 
tural topics; but they shall take no part in the business of 
the club. 

Article III. Section i. If the funds of the club should 
at any time be exhausted, or inadequate to meet the de- 
mands contemplated by the Constitution, there shall be an 
equal assessment upon each member to make up the de- 
ficiency. 

Section 2. No appropriation of money from the funds 
of the club shall be lawful, except in furtherance of the 
objects contemplated by the Constitution, as stated in ar- 
ticle 2, or as especially provided by these By-laws. 

Article IV, Section i. There shall be a library estab- 



362 GENERAL TOPICS. 

lished for the use of the club in furtherance of the objects 
contemplated in article 2 of the Constitution. 

Section 2. The library shall be open to the free use of 
the members of the club, who shall not be more than three 
months indebted to the treasury, subject to the prescribed 
rules and regulations. 

Section 3. The library shall" be maintained by the sur- 
plus fund, after defraying the expenses of the club, and 
by the voluntary contributions and donations of the mem- 
bers, to be duly accredited to each contributor and donor. 

Section 4. The library shall be in charge of the li- 
brarian, as provided in article 4, section 6, of the Consti- 
tution. There shall be a standing library committee of 
three members appointed at each annual meeting, of whom 
the librarian shall be one, and ex-officio chairman, which 
shall have charge of the purchase and collection of books, 
papers, and pamphlets for the library, and perform such 
other duties as may be ordained. 

Section 5. Rules. — Rule i. No member shall have from 
the library more than one (two) book(s) at a time. 

Rule 2. No volume shall be retained longer than two 
weeks, under penalty of a fine of ten cents for the first 
waek of detention, and five cents for every week thereafter. 

Rule 3. There shall be assessed for injuries as follows: 
1st. For an injury beyond ordinary wear, an amount pro- 
portionate to the injury, ascertained by the librarian. 2d. 
For the loss of the volume, the cost of the book; and if one 
of a set, an amount sufficient to replace it, or purchase a 
new volume. 

Rule 4. No person having incurred a fine shall be per- 
mitted to take books from the library until the fine is paid. 

Article V. A vote of two thirds of all the members 
present shall be required to pass any appropriation of 
money by the club, other than for its necessary contingent 
expenses. 

Article VI. Section i. Any member who shall suffer 
his account with the treasurer to go unsettled for more 
than one year shall cease to be considered as belonging to 
the club, and his name shall be stricken from the roll ac- 
cordingly. 



CONSTITUTIONS OF AGRICULTURAL ASSOCIATIONS. oGo 

Section 2. Any member who shall be guilty of any gross 
violation of the rules of order, or of profane or indecent 
language or conduct, at any of the meetings of the club 
shall be fined, reprimanded, or expelled, as the club may, 
by a two thirds vote, decide. 

Section 3. Any member who shall become guilty of any 
heinous offence or disgraceful practice, such as to render 
him an unfit associate, shall, on conviction thereof, be ex- 
pelled from the club. 

Article VII. These By-laws may be amended in the 
same manner as the Constitution. 

Standing Resolutions. 

Resolved, That after this date the weekly meetings of 
this club shall be held on , at , or at the resi- 
dences of the members of the club, at o'clock. 

Resolved, That there shall be an Executive Committee, 
consisting of the president, recording secretary, and treas- 
urer, having power to transact the necessary business 
of the club, during the term when the meetings are not 
lield. 

Rules of Order. 

1. No question shall be stated unless moved by two 
members, nor open for discussion until stated by the presi- 
dent. 

2. When a member intends to speak on a question, he 
shall rise in his place and respectfully address his remarks 
to the chair, confine his remarks to the question, and avoid 
personalities. Should more than one person rise at a 
time, the president shall determine who is entitled to the 
floor. 

3. When a member is called to order by the president, 
or any other member he shall at once take his seat, and 
every point of order shall be decided by the president, 
without debate, subject to an appeal to the club. 

4. In case of an appeal from the decision of the chair 
the question shall be put to the club thus: " Shall the de- 
cision of the chair be sustained'*" which shall be decided 
without debate. 



364 GENERAL TOPICS. 

5. No member shall interrupt another while he is speak, 
ing, except to call to order. 

6. Any member may call for a division of the question, 
when the sense will admit of it. 

7. When any three members call for the yeas and nays, 
they shall be taken and recorded on the minutes. 

8. All resolutions shall, when required by the president 
or any member, be submitted in writing, and signed by the 
member offering the same. 

g. Cushing's " Manual of Parliamentary Practice " shall 
be adopted as authority in all matters pertaining to parlia- 
mentary order in the club. 

10. These Rules may be amended in the same manner 
as the Constitution and By-laws. 

Order of Business. 

1. Calling the roll of officers and necessary filling of 
vacancies. 

2. Reading of minutes of last meeting. 

3. Reports of committees. 

4. Unfinished business. 

5. New business. 

6. Reception of new members. 

7. Has any member any question to ask for information 
in regard to his farm, stock, etc.? 

8. Reading of communications and essays. 

9. Discussion of regular topic. 

10. Assignment of subject for next discussion. 

I CONSTITUTION OF VILLAGE-IMPROVEMENT 
SOCIETIES. 



Article i. This society shall be called the Im- 
provement Society. 

Art. 2. The object of this society shall be to improve 
and ornament the streets and public grounds of the village 
by planting and cultivating trees, establishing and protect- 
ing grass-plats and borders in the avenues, and generally 
doing wh'atever may tend to the improvement of the village 
as a place of residence. 



CONSTITUTIONS OF AGRICULTURAL ASSOCIATIONS. 365 

Art. 3. The business of the society shall be conducted 
by a board of nine directors, five gentlemen and four 
ladies, to be elected annually by the society, who shall 
constitute the board. This board shall, from its own 
number, elect one president, two vice-presidents, a secre- 
tary, and treasurer, and shall appoint such committees as 
they may deem advisable to further the ends of the society. 

Art. 4. It shall be the duty of the president, and, in his 
absence, of the senior vice-president, to preside at all meet- 
ings of the society, and to carry out all orders of the board 
of directors. 

Art. 5. It shall be the duty of the secretary to keep a 
correct and careful record of all proceedings of the society 
and of the board of directors in a book suitable for their 
preservation, and such other duties as ordinarily pertain 
to the office. 

Art. 6. It shall be the duty of the treasurer to keep the 
funds of the society, and to make such disbursements as 
may be ordered by the board of directors. 

Art. 7. No debt shall be contracted by the board of 
directors beyond the amount of available funds within 
their control to pay it, and no member of this society shall 
be liable for any debt of the society beyond the amount of 
his or her subscription. 

- Art. 8. Any adult person may become a member of this 
society by paying two dollars ($2.00) annually. Any per- 
son not of age who shall plant and protect a tree, under 
the direction of the board of directors, or shall pay the 
t«um of $1.00 annually, may become a member of this 
society until of age, after which time the annual dues 
shall be increased to two dollars ($2.00), the same as other 
adults. 

Art. 9. The annual meeting of the society shall be held 
during the first week in October at such place as the board 
of directors may select, and a notice of such meeting shall 
be posted in prominent places through the village. Other 
meetings of the society may be called by the board of 
directors when desirable. 

Art. 10. At the annual meeting the board of directors 



366 GENERAL TOPICS. 

shall report the amount of money received during the year, 
and the source from which it has been received; the amount 
of money expended during the year, and the objects for 
which it has been expended; the number of trees planted 
at the cost of the society, and the number planted by indi- 
viduals; and, generally, all acts of the board that may be 
of interest to the society. This report shall be entered 
on the record of the society. 

Art. II. This constitution may be amended with the 
approval of two thirds of the members present at any 
annual meeting of the society, or at any special meeting 
called for that purpose, a month's notice of the proposed 
amendment, with its object, having been given. 

CONSTITUTION OF ROAD LEAGUES. 

Article i. This organization shall be known as thQ 
Road League of County, (State). 



Art. 2. Its object shall be the improvement of public 
roads in and vicinity. 

Art. 3. Any person may become a member on payment 
of one dollar per annum, and shall be entitled to vote at 
annual meetings. 

Art. 4. The annual meeting shall be held in Novembei 
on Mondays on or preceding the full moon. 

Art. 5. The business of the Road League shall be 
intrusted to a council of twelve, who shall be chosen by 
ballot at the annual meetings, and they shall hold office 
until their successors are elected. 

By-laws. 

Art. I. The council of twelve shall convene as soon as 
possible after the election, and shall choose from their 
number a president, also a secretary and treasurer (who 
may be one and the same person), and the council shall 
hold meetings monthly at the call of the secretary. 

Art. 2. The president shall preside at all meetings, and 
when absent a member present shall be called to the chair 
in the usual way. 



CONSTITUTIONS OF AGRICULTURAL ASSOCIATIONS. 367 

Art. 3. -The secretary shall keep a record of the proceed- 
ings of all meetings and conduct the correspondence of the 
league. 

Art. 4. The treasurer shall keep an accurate account of 
receipts and disbursements in a book for that purpose, and 
all disbursements shall be authorized or approved by the 
council. 

Art. 5. Meetings of the council may be called by order 
of the president, or at the request of three of its members, 
and five shall constitute a quorum. 

Art. 6. The president shall appoint a monthly committee 
of two members of the council, who shall give special 
supervision to the work of the overseer in charge of the 
roads under the jurisdiction of the league, and serve until 
their successors are appointed. 

Art. 7. The council shall fill all vacancies occurring by 
resignation or otherwise, and they may drop from their 
number any member who shall persistently neglect his 
duty, or manifest indifference by non-attendance of the 
monthly meetings. 

Art. 8. The constitution and by-laws of this league may 
be changed by a two thirds vote of the entire council, 
notice of such change having been given in writing at a 
preceding meeting. 

The order of business of the council shall be as follows; 
I. Roll-call. 2. Reading of minutes of previous meeting. 
3. Report of treasurer. 4. Unfinished business. 5. New 
business. 6. Reports of committees and of the overseers 
7. Adjournment. 



367a GENERAL TOPICS. 

CO-OPERATIVE BREEDERS' ASSOCIATION. 

By-Laws Governing Co-operative Breeders' Association. 

(i) It shall be the purpose of this association to procure and 
I use pedigreed sires for the purpose of improving our live stock 
through a system of up-grading. This method of improvement 
implies the continued use of some one kind of pure blood on the 
grade and mixed bred stocks. The association opposes the ad- 
mixture of the blood of several breeds and the use of cross-bred 
grade and scrub sires. The association also pledges itself to 
exert every possible influence for the improvement and further- 
ance of the live stock interests of the community. 

(2) It shall be the duty of the ofi&cers of this association to 
purchase the necessary sires and negotiate with competent parties 
within the association, centrally located, to care for and handle 
the bulls at a sum not to exceed — per annum. 

(3) All bulls must be purchased subject to the tuberculin test 
as a safeguard against the introduction of tuberculosis. 

(4) No bulls or other breeding animals shall be purchased from 
any herd in which three or more cases of abortion have occurred 
during the past three years. (This will make reasonable allow- 
ance for accidental abortion and act as a safeguard against the 
ravages of contagious abortion.) 

(5) Should any contagious or infectious disease appear in the 
herd of any member of this association he must forfeit the right 
to patronize males of the association until such time as his herd 
is declared free from disease by a competent veterinarian. 

(6) A service fee of $1.00 shall be charged members of the 
association, to be collected at time of service. A charge of $2 
will be made to non-members in case the association should 
decide to accept the patronage of the same. Refund of service 
fee is to be made in the case of animals proving to be non-breeders. 

(7) Service fees shall be used to defray cost of maintenance 
and handling of sires. Any surplus accumulations from this 
source may be divided among stockholders as dividends. 

(8) It shall be the duty of the officers of this association to 
require and see to it that each sire is kept in a strong, vigorous, 



CONSTITUTIONS OF AGRICULTURAL ASSOCIATIONS. 3676 

healthy condition, in moderate flesh, with plentiful supplies of 
suitable food and sufficient yardage to afford exercise in the 
open air and sunshine, in addition to the protection of the stable, 
(g) Bulls shall not be used for service under one year of age, 
nor shall heifers be bred to calve under twenty-four months of 
age. During the rush cf the breeding season single services 
only will be allowed. 

DAIKY TL]ST ASSOCIATIONS. 

1. The organization shall be known as the District Dairy 

Test Association. 

2. The officers shall consist of a president, a vice-president, 
and a secretary and treasurer. Three other members shall be 
appointed to act along with the officers as a committee of manage- 
ment. 

3. The officers shall be elected to hold office for one year or 
until their successors are elected. 

4. The annual meeting shall be held at the call of the president. 

5. Meetings of the committee of management shall be held at 
the call of the secretary-treasurer. Three members shall form a 
quorum. 

By-Laws 

1. Any person who will agree to keep a record of individual 
cows during the whole milking period, to the extent of weighing 
the morning's and evening's milk on at least three days every 
month and also take a sample for testing, will be admitted 
to membership. The number of members may be limited at 
the discretion of the committee of management. 

2. The milk will be preserved and a composite sample tested 
once a month with a Babcock milk-tester. 

3. Members wall be expected to provide themselves with a 
dipper, scales and sample bottles for each cow and a box for 
holding the samples. 

4. Members shall assume the responsibility of delivering the 
samples to the place where the testing is to be done, on such days 
as may be directed by the person in charge of the work. 



368 



GENERAL TOPICS. 



II. MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS 
TABLES. 



AND 



EX PLANATION OF THE FLAG SIGNALS ADOPTED 
BY THE UNITED STATES WEATHER BUREAU. 



The U. S. Weather Bureau furnishes, when practicable, 
for the benefit of the general public and those interests de- 
pendent to a greater or less extent upon weather condi- 
tions, the " Forecasts " which are prepared daily, at 
ID A.M. and lo P.M., for the following day. These weather 
forecasts are telegraphed to observers at stations of the 
Weather Bureau, railway officials, and many others, 
and are so worded as to be readily communicated to the 
public by means of flags or steam whistles. The flags 
adopted for this purpose are five in number, and of the 
form and dimensions indicated below: 



Weather Flags. 



No. I. 
White Flag. 



No. 2. 
Blue Flag, 



No. 3. 

White and Blue 

Flag. 



No 4. No. 5. 

Black Tri- White Flag 
angular with black 
Flag. square in centre. 




Clear or fair Rain or snow, 
weather. 



Local rains 
or snow 



^ 



Temperature 
signal. 




Cold wave. 



Interpretation of Displays. 

No. I, alone : fair weather, stationary temperature. 
No. 2, alone : rain or snow, stationary temperature. 
No. 3, alone : local rain or snow, stationary temperature. 
No. I, with No. 4 above it : fair weather, warmer. 
No. I, with No. 4 below it ; fair weather, colder. 



MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS AND TABLES. 369 

No. 2, with No. 4 above it: wai-nier weather, rain or snow. 
No. 2, with No. 4 below it : colder weather, rain or snow. 
No. 3, with No. 4 above it : warmer weather, with local rains 
or snow. 

No. 3, with Ni). 4 below it : colder weather, with local rains or 
snov/. 

Explanation of Whistle Signals. 
A warning blast of from fifteen to twenty seconds' duration is 
sounded to attract attention. After this warning the longer blasts 
(of from four to six seconds' duration) refer to weather, and shorter 
blasts (of from one to three seconds' duration) refer to temperature; 
those for weather are sounded first. 

Blasts. Indicate. 

One long Fair weather 

Two long Rain or snow 

Three long Local rain or snow 

One short Lower temperature 

Two short Higher temperature 

Three short Cold wave 

By repeating each combination a few times, with intervals of 

ten seconds, liability to error in reading the signals may be 

avoided. 

Explanation of Storm and Hurricane Warnings. 

Storm luarning. — A red flag with a black center indicates that 
a storm of marked violence is expected. 

The pennants displayed with the flags indicate the direction 
of the wind: red, easterly (from northeast to south); white, 
westerly (from southwest to north). The pennant above llie 
flag indicates that the wind is expected to blow from the north- 
erly quadrants; below, from the southerly quadrants. 

By night a red light indicates easterly winds, and a white 
light above a red light, westerly winds. 

Hurricane warning. — Two red flags with black centers, dis- 
played one above the other, indicate the expected approach of a 
tropical hurricane, or one of those extremely severe and dangerous 
storms which occasionally move across the Lakes and northern 
Atlantic coast. 

No night hurricane warnings are displayed. 



370 



GENERAL TOPICS. 



LIST OF HEADQUARTERS OF STATE WEATHER 
SERVICES. 

The headquarters of the state weather services are as 

follows: 



Auburn, Alabama. 
Little Rock, Arkansas, 
Sacramento, California. 
Denver, Colorado. 
Atlanta, Georgia. 
Springfield, Illinois. 
Indianapolis or Lafayette, 

Indiana. 
Des Moines, Iowa. 
Topeka, Kansas. 
Louisville, Kentucky. 
New Orleans, Louisiana. 
Baltimore, Maryland. 
Cambridge, Massachusetts. 
Lansing, Michigan. 
Minneapolis, Minnesota. 
University, Mississippi. 
Columbia, Missouri. 



Crete, Nebraska. 
Carson City, Nevada. 
New Brunswick, New Jersey. 
Santa Fe, New Mexico. 
Ithaca, New York. 
Raleigh, North Carolina. 
Bismarck, North Dakota. 
Columbus, Ohio. 
Portland or Oswego, Oregon. 
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. 
Columbia, South Carolina, 
Huron, South Dakota. 
Nashville, Tennessee. 
Galveston, Texas. 
Lynchburg, Virginia. 
Olympia, Washington. 
Parkersburg, West Virginia. 
Milwaukee, Wisconsin. 



BENEFICIAL AND HARMFUL HAAVKS AND OWLS, 

(Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.) 

Much misapprehension exists among farmers as to the 
habits of birds of prey. Examination of the contents of 
the stomachs of such birds to the number of several 
thousand has established the fact that their food consists 
almost entirely of injurious mammals and insects, and that 
accordingly these birds are in most cases positively beneficial 
to the farmer, and should be fostered ana protected. 

Among those zvholly beneficial z.x& the large, rough-legged 
hawk; its near relative, the squirrel-hawk, or ferruginous 
roughleg; and the four kites: the white-tailed kite, Missis- 
sippi kite, swallow-tailed kite, and everglade kite. 

The class that is beneficial in the wa?w— that is, whose 
depredations are of little consequence in comparison with 



MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS AND TABLES. 371 

the good it does — includes a majority of the hawks and 
owls, among them being the following species and their 
races: March-hawk, Harris's hawk, red-tailed hawk, red- 
shouldered hawk, short-tailed hawk, white-tailed hawk, 
Swainson's hawk, short-winged hawk, broad-winged hawk, 
Mexican black hawk, Mexican goshawk, sparrow-hawk, 
Audubon's caracara, barn-owl, long-eared owl, short-eared 
owl, great gray owl, barred owl. Western owl, Richardson's 
owl, Acadian owl, screech-owl, flammulated screech-owl, 
snowy owl, hawk-owl, burrowing owl, pygmy owl, fer- 
ruginous pygmy owl, and elf-owl. 

•The class in which the harmful and the beneficial qualities 
about balance each other includes the golden eagle, bald 
eagle, pigeon-hawk, Richardson's hawk, Aplomado falcon, 
prairie falcon, and the great horned owl. 

The har77iful class comprises the gyrfalcons, duck-hawk, 
sharp-shinned hawk, Cooper's hawk, and goshawk. 

HOW PATENTS ARE ISSUED. 

Patents are issued in the name of the United States, and 
under the seal of the Patent Office, to any person who has 
invented or discovered any new and useful art, machine, 
manufacture, or composition of matter, or any new or use- 
ful improvement thereof, not known or used by others in 
this country, and not patented or described in any printed 
publication in this or any foreign country before the inven- 
tion or discovery thereof, and not in public use or on sale 
for more than two years prior to his application, unless the 
same is proved to have been abandoned ; and any person 
who by his own industry, genius, efforts, and expense has 
invented and produced any new and original design for a 
manufacture, bust, statua, alto-relievo or bas-relief, or any 
new and original design for the printing of woolen, silk, 
cotton, or other fabrics, any new and original impression, 
ornament, patent, pattern, print, or picture to be painted^ 
printed, cast, or otherwise placed on or worked into any 



372 GEiTERAL TOPICS. 

article of manufacture ; or any new, useful, and original 
shape or configuration of any article of manufacture, the 
same not having been known or used by others before his 
invention or production thereof, or patented or described in 
any printed publication, may, upon payment of the fee pre- 
scribed and other due proceedings had, obtain a patent on 
the same. 

Every patent contains a short title or description of the 
invention or discovery, correctly indicating its nature and 
design, and a grant to the patentee, his heirs or assigns, for 
the term of seventeen years of the exclusive right to make, 
use, and vend the invention or discovery throughout the 
United States and the Territories, referring to the specifica-. 
tion for the particulars thereof. 

If it appears that the inventor, at the time of making his 
application, believed himself to be the original and first in- 
ventor or discoverer, a patent will not be refused on account 
of the invention or discovery or any part thereof having 
been known or used in a foreign country before his inven- 
vention or discovery thereof, if it had not been patented or 
described in a printed publication. 

No person shall be debarred from receiving a patent for 
his invention by reaSon of its having been first patented in 
a foreign country, unless the application for the foreign 
patent was filed more than seven months prior to the filing 
of the application in this country. But every patent granted 
for an invention which has been previously patented in a 
foreign country shall be so limited as to expire at the same 
time with the foreign patent, or if there be more than one, 
at the same time with the one having the shortest term, but 
in no case shall it be in force more than seventeen years. 

Joint inventors are entitled to a joint patent; neither can 
claim one separately. Independent inventors of distinct 
and independent improvements in the same machine can- 
not obtain a joint patent for their separate inventions; nor 
does the fact that one furnishes the capital and another 
makes the invention entitle them to make application as 
joint inventors ; but in such cases they may become joint 
patentees. 



MISCELLAKEOUS SUBJECTS AND TABLES. 373 

Applications. — Application for a patent must be made in 
writing to the Commissioner of Patents. The applicant 
must also file in the Patent Office a written description of 
the same, and of the manner and process of making, con- 
structing, compounding and using it, in such full, clear, con- 
cise, and exact terms as to enable any person skilled in the 
art or science to which it appertains, or with which it is 
most nearly connected, to make, construct, compound, and 
use the same; and in case of a machine, he shall explain the 
principle thereof, and the best mode in which he has con- 
templated applying that principle, so as to distinguish it 
from other inventions; and particularly point out and dis- 
tinctly claim the part, improvement, or combination which 
he claims as his invention or discovery. The specification 
and claim shall be signed by the inventor and attested by 
two witnesses. 

When the nature of the case admits of drawings, the ap- 
plicant must furnish a drawing of the required size, signed 
by the inventor or his attorney in fact, and attested by two 
witnesses, which shall be filed in the Patent Office. In 
cases of inventions that admit of representation by model, 
the applicant, if required by the Patent Office, shall furnish 
a model of convenient size to exhibit advantageously the 
several parts of the invention or discovery. 

The applicant shall make oath that he does verily believe 
himself to be the original and first inventor and discoverer 
of the art, machine, manufacture, composition, or improve- 
ment for which he solicits a patent; that he does not know 
and does not believe that the same was ever before known 
or used, and shall state of what country he is a citizen and 
where he resides. Such oath may be made before any per- 
son within the United States authorized by law to admin- 
ister oaths, or, when the applicant resides in a foreign 
country, before any minister, charge d'affaires, consul, or 
commercial agent holding commission under the Govern- 
ment of the United States, or before any notary public of 
the foreign country in which the applicant may be, provided 
such notary is authorized by the laws of his country to 
administer oaths. 



374 GENERAL TOPICS. 

On the filing of such application and the payment of the 
fees required by law, the Commissioner of Patents shall 
cause an examination to be made, and if, on such examina- 
tion, it appears that the claimant is justly entitled to a 
patent under the law, and that the same is sufficiently use- 
ful and important, the Commissioner shall issue a patent 
therefor. 

Assignments. — Every patent or any interest therein shall 
be assignable in law by an instrument in writing, and the 
patentee or his assigns or legal representatives may in like 
manner grant and convey an exclusive right und^r his 
patent to the whole or any specified part of the United 
States. 

Caveats. — A caveat, under the patent law, is a notice 
given to the office of the caveator's claim as inventor, in 
order to prevent the grant of a patent to another for the 
same alleged invention upon an application filed during 
the life of the caveat without notice to the caveator. 

Any citizen of the United States who has made a new 
invention or discovery, and desires more time to mature 
the same, may, on payment of a fee of ten dollars, file in 
the Patent Office a caveat setting forth the object and the 
distinguishing characteristics of the invention, and praying 
protection of his right until he shall have matured his 
invention. Such caveats shall be filed in the confidential 
archives of the office and preserved in secrecy, and shall be 
operative for the term of one year from the filing thereof. 

An alien shall have the privilege herein granted if he 
has resided in the United States one year next preceding 
the filing of his caveat, and has made oath of his intention 
to become a citizen. 

j^ges. — The following are the rates for patent fees, and 
these are payable in advance: 

On filing each original application for a patent (except in 
design cases), $15. 

On issuing each original patent (except in design cases), 
$20. 

In design cases: For three years and six months, $10; 
for seven years, $15; for fourteen years, $30, 



MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS AND TABLES. 375 

On filing each caveat, $io. 

On every application for the reissue of a patent, $30, 

On filing each disclaimer, $io. 

On every application for the extension of a patent, $50. 

On the granting of every extension of a patent, $50. 

For certified copies of patents and other papers in manu- 
script, 10 cents per hundred words. 

For recording every assignment, agreement, power of 
attorney, or other paper of three hundred words or under, 
$1; of over three hundred words and under one thousand 
words, $2; of over one thousand words, $3. For copies of 
drawings, the reasonable cost of making them. 

LEGAL HOLIDAYS J 

January i, New Year's: All States except Massachusetts, 
Minnesota, New Hampshire, and Rhode Island. 

January 8, Anniversary of Battle of New Orleans : Loui- 
siana. 

January 19, Lee* s Birthday : Florida, Georgia, North Car- 
olina, and Virginia. 

February 12, Lincoln's Birthday : Illinois, Minneso<-a, New 
Jersey, New York, and Washington, 

February 22, Washington's Birthday : All States except 
Iowa, Mississippi, and New Mexico. 

March 2, Texa^i Independence Anniversary : Texas. 

April, first Saturday, Arbor Day : Utah. 

April, first Wednesday, Election Day : Rhode Island. 

April 19, Concord Day : Massachusetts. 

April 21, Anniversary of Battle of San Jacinto : Texas. 

April 22, Arbor Day : Nebraska. 

April 26, Memorial Day : Alabama, Florida, Georgia, and 
Tennessee. 

May, first Friday, Arbor Day : Rhode Island and Idaho. 

May 10, Memorial Day : North Carolina. 

May 20, Mecklenburg Declaration of Independence : North 
Carolina. 

May 30, Memorial Day : All States except Alabama, 
Arkansas, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky, Louisiana, New 



376 GENEEAL TOPICS. 

Mexico, North Carolina, South Carolina, Texas, and Vir- 
ginia. 

IViWt. 2), Jeff^^son Davis^ Birthday: Florida. 

July 4, Independence Day : All States and District of Co- 
lumbia. 

July 24, Pioneers' Day : Utah. 

August 16, Bennington Battle Day : Vermont. 

September, first Monday, Labor Day : All States and Dis- 
trict of Columbia. 

September 9, Admission Day : California. 

October 15, Lincoln Day : Connecticut. 

October 31, Admission into the Union Anniversary : Ne- 
vada. 

November, General Election Day (first Tuesday after first 
Monday) : Arizona, California, Colorado, Florida, Idaho, 
Indiana, Illinois, Maryland, Minnesota, Missouri, Montana, 
Nevada, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, North 
Dakota, Ohio, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, South 
Carolina, South Dakota, Tennessee, Texas, Washington, 
West Virginia, Wisconsin, and Wyoming. 

November, last Thursday, Thanksgiving Day : In all 
States, though not a stationary holiday in some. 

December 25, Christmas Day : All States and District of 
Columbia. 

Arbor Day is a legal holiday in Idaho, Kansas, Rhode 
Island, and Wyoming, the day being set by the governor. 

Mardi Gras (the last day before Lent) is observed as a 
holiday in Alabama and Louisiana. 

Good Friday is observed as a holiday in Alabama, Georgi?, 
Louisiana, Maryland, Minnesota, Pennsylvania, and Ten- 
nessee. 

Every Saturday after 12 o'clock noon is a legal holiday in 
New York, New Jersey, and New Orleans ; also from June 
to September in Colorado and Pennsylvania. 



MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS AKD TABLES. 377 

WHAT TO DO IN CASE OF ACCIDENTS. 

By J. NoER, M.D., Stoughton, Wis. 

To consider the cause, nature, effect, and treatment of the 
multiplicity of injuries due to accidents is impossible, except 
in a treatise devoted to the subject. The object here is to instruct 
the layman to use his reason and good sense to aid the afflicted 
till skilled help arrives. It is especially important that he refrains 
from doing a lot of foolish things, and does not give or apply 
remedies about which he knows nothing, the effects of which 
are often more dangerous to the patient than the injury itself. 

The symptoms demanding urgent attention after an injury are 
usually shock, pain, bleeding, support, and adjustment of 
mangled or broken limbs, protection to open wounds, burned 
surfaces, bruises, etc. 

Wounds. — The all-important item in the treatment of wounds 
or cuts is absolute cleanliness or asepsis. Asepsis can be secured 
by having everything that is to be used for the wound boiled just 
I efore applying it. 

Before dressing a wound: 

I St. Wash your hands, scrub and clean finger-nails thoroughly 
v/ith soap and hot boiled water. 

2d. Wash the limb or parts around cut or wound with boiled 
water and soap, being careful not to wash dirt from around the 
sore into it, 

3d. Wash out the wound with Aof boiled water. If there 
is still oozing from the cut surfaces, press clean cloths 
wrung out of boiled water as hot as hands can bear against 
the bleeding surfaces till it stops. 

4th. Draw the edges of the wound together with strips 
of court-plaster. 

5th. Lay over the wound so as to cover it well ten to 
twelve thicknesses of clean boiled and baked dry cheese- 
cloth, sheeting, or linen, and fasten on with a bandage. 

6th. Let the injured parts be at rest. If you have 
secured asepsis and gotten the edges of the wound together 
closely, keep the wounded parts at rest for from three to six 
days; the wound will then heal without pain or pus, and 
■ without swelling, inflammation, or fever. Don't hinder 



378 GENERAL TOPICS. ' 

the healing of a wound by putting pitch, tobacco juice, 
" healing ointments," liniments, or other filth into it. 

Broken or Mangled Limbs should be supported by- 
temporary splints, made from boards, pasteboard, shingles, 
etc. Put one on each side of the limb and tie on with 
handkerchief or bandages. The splints should be long 
enough to support entire limb. 

Burns and Scalds — If the burn is extensive, place the 
person in a bath of lukewarm water, keep the body im- 
mersed up to the chin, see that the water is kept warm; 
patient may be left in bath indefinitely. If the burn is not 
large, but painful, cover the burned surface with a thick 
layer of flour, powdered starch, zinc ointment, or cotton 
batting. Equal parts of limewater and linseed oil may be 
applied, and the burn covered with cotton. It is impor- 
tant in burns to apply a dressing that will exclude the air. 
In large burns there is always severe shock: treat this 
as directed below. 

Shock. — When a person has been severely injured or badly 
frightened, there follows a condition of the nervous system 
which is known as shock. A person suffering from shock 
generally becomes pale, cold, faint, and ti'embling, with a small 
weak pulse. The mind is dull and the person looks anxious and 
distressed. Sometimes the person is excited and restless. 

Treatment. — Let the person rest in a quiet cheerful 
place. If he is little injured, tell him so calmly. If the 
injury is severe, and there is pain, broken bones, bleeding, 
etc., you must still be calm, cheerful, and helpful. Give a 
tablespoonful (2 or 3, if a drinker), of whiskey in water every 
quarter or half hour. Wrap him in warm blankets and 
lay hot water bottles around him. If there is much pain, 
give 10 drops of laudanum. In case of bleeding, open 
wounds, or broken bones, treat them as directed. A flushed 
face and fever show that the patient is reviving and does 
not need hot-water bottles or whiskey. Never let an in- 
jured person be surrounded by a crowd of people. 

Pain is frequently relieved by the adjustment and support of 
mangled limbs, by protecting exposed open wounds, burns, 
bruises, etc., with clean gauze dressings. Morphin \ grain, or 
20 drops of laudanum, or i grain of opium can be given if pain 



MISCELLAl^EOUS SUBJECTvS AND TABLES. 379 

is unbearable. Unless labsolutely necessary this treatment 
should be left to the physician. 

Hemorrhage or Bleeding always occurs after an in- 
jury. It is the result of the tearing or cutting off of the 
blood-vessels. A person suffering from hemorrhage either 
internal or external is pale, faint, with feeble pulse. 

Treatment. — Keep the person quiet. If the bleeding 
comes from a wound in the upper or lower limbs, it will 
5top by raising the limb up above the rest of the body. 
Tie clean cloths tightly over the sore. If ihe blood comes 
in spurts, tie a rope or handkerchief tightly around limb 
above cut nearest to body. If bleeding is slight, it will 
stop by tying clean cloths tightly over the cut. Ice may 
be applied over the bleeding vessels. Clean cloths wrung 
out of water as hot as hands can bear is often effective. 

Never use cobwebs, tobacco juice, or other filthy things 
to stop bleeding. If a person spits or coughs up red frothy 
blood, he is probably bleeding from the lungs. Let him 
lie down, and if it continues to come up apply ice to chest 
and give a teaspoonful of extract of ergot. 

Sunstroke and Heat Exhaustion. — In sunstroke the 
person has a red face; skin is hot and dry; there is high 
fever; breathing and pulse are very rapid. There is often 
delirium and convulsions. Put the patient in a cold bath; 
apply ice to the head and rub the skin with pieces of ice. 
If he cannot be put into a bath, put him in the shade and 
pour cold water over him, or wrap him in cold wet blank- 
ets and pour cold water over his head. In heat exhaus- 
tion, the patient is pale and the skin cool. There is no 
fever. Let the person rest in the shade. Give stimulants, 
as hot coffee or whiskey. 

Poisoning. — In any case of poisoning when the kind of 
poison is unknown, induce vomiting at once by giving 
warm water with or without a tablespoonful of ground 
mustard, or double this amount of salt to the teacup. 
Thrust your finger down his throat to help the emetic. 
Milk, raw eggs, gruel, oil should be given freely if irritant 
poisons, like potash, lye, or acids, have been taken. The 
following table contains suggestions for the proper treat- 
ment of the forms of poisoning occurring most frequently! 



380 



GENERAL TOPICS. 



Poison. 



Acids: _ 1 

Sulfuric, 
Nitric, _ 
Muriatic, 
Oxalic. J 



Carbolic acid and 
creosote. 



Alkalies: _ ] 

Ammonia, 
Soda, 
Potash, 
Lye. 

Arsenic, -. 

Paris green, | 

Poison fly-paper, \ \ 
Rough on rats. 



Treatment. 



Corrosiv( 
mate. 



lodin. 



subli- 



Opium, 
Morphin , 
Laudanum 
Paregoric, 

Poison gas from 
coal stove. 



Give soap, soda, whitewash, or magnesia mixed in 

water. Produce vomiting. 
Give gruel, milk, eggs (uncooked). 
Relieve pain by giving lo drops of laudanum in 

water. 

Give Epsom salts, raw eggs. _ 

Produce vomiting. Alcohol is the antidote. Give 
whisky, brandy, or alcohol freely if acid has been 
swallowed. Externally apply alcohol or cloths 
or cotton soaked in alcohol to the surface burned 
by the acid' 

Give vinegar, lemon or orange juice, or any acid 

diluted in plenty of water. 
Give milk, gruel, white of egg, oils. 
For pain give lo drops of laudanum. 

Produce vomiting if theie is none already. 
Hydrated oxid of iron v/ith magnesia in water is 

the antidote. 
Give 2 tablespoonsful of castor oil. 

Produce vomiting. Give a teaspoonful of tann n 

in water. 
Give raw eggs, milk, castor oil. 

Produce vomiting. 

Give starch and water, raw eggs, milk, or gruel. 

Produce vomiting. Inject from a pint to a QAxart 
of strong coffee into rectvim, or give by mouth if 
patient can swallow. 

Potassium permanganate is antidote. 

Keep patient awake. 

Fresh air; stimulants, as coffee, ammonia. 



MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS AND TABLES. 381 

The following additional suggestions are offered: 

liightning. — Dash cold water over person struck. 

Mad-dog- or Snake-bite. — Tie cord tight above wound. 
Suck the wound and cauterize with caustic or white-hot 
iron at once, or cut out adjoining parts with a sharp knife. 
Give stimulants, as whisky, brandy, etc. 

Sting of Venomous Insects, etc. — Apply weak am- 
monia, oil, salt water, or iodin. 

Fainting. — Place flat on back, allow fresh air, and 
sprinkle with water. Place head lower than rest of body. 

Cinders in the Eye. — Roll soft paper up like a lamp- 
lighter and wet the tip to remove cinder, or use a medicine- 
dropper to draw it out. Rub the other eye. 

Fire in One's Clothing. — Don't run, especially not 
down-stairs or out-of-doors. Roll on carpet, or wrap in- 
woolen rug or blanket. Keep the head down so as not to 
inhale flame. 

Fire in a Building. — Crawl on the floor. The clearest 
air is the lowest in the room. Cover head with woolen 
wrap, wet if possible. 

Fire from Kerosene. — Don't use water, it will spread 
the flames. Dirt, sand, or flour is the best extinguisher; 
or smother with woolen rug, table-cloth or carpet. 

Suffocation from Inhaling Illuminating-gas. — Get into 
fresh air as soon as possible, and lie down. Keep warm. 
Take ammonia, 20 drops to a tumbler of water, at frequent 
intervals ; also 2-4 drops tincture of nux vomica every 
hour or two for 5 or 6 hours. {World Almanac, 1899.) 



382 



GENERAL TOPICS. 



INTEREST TABLES. 



4% 


$1 


$2 


$3 


$4 


$5 


$6 


$7 


$8 


$9 


$10 


$100 


$1000 


4 DAY. 


O 


o 


o 


o 


o 


o 














5 


P 


8 " 


o 


o 


o 


o 


o 


o 







I 


I 


9 


89 


J2 " 


o 


o 


o 


o 


o 


I 




I 


I 


2 


13 


1-34 


i6 " 


o 


o 


o 


o 


I 


I 




2 


2 


2 


18 


1.78 


20 " 


o 


o 


o 




I 


2 




2 


» 


2 


22 


2.22 


24 " 


o 


o 






2 


2 




2 


3 


3 


27 


2.67 


28 " 


o 


o 






2 


2 




3 


3 


3 


31 


3" 


I MO. . 


o 


o 






2 


2 




3 


3 


3 


33 


3-34 


2 *' 


o 


2 






4 


4 




6 


6 


7 


67 


6.67 


3 " 


I 


2 






5 


6 




8 


9 


10 


1. 00 


10.00 


6 " 


2 


4 


b 


8 


lO 


12 


14 


16 


18 


20 


2.00 


20.00 


•l YR... 


4 


8 


12 


.6 


20 


24 


28 


32 


36 


40 


4.00 


40.00 



5% 


$1 


$2 


$3 


$4 


Is 


$6 


$7 


$8 


$9 


$10 


$100 


$1000 


4 DAY. 
































6 


56 


8 " 




















I 


I 


I 


i 


II 


1. 11 


12 " 














I 


I 


I 


2 


2 


2 


17 


1.67 


16 " 











I 


I 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


22 


2.22 


20 " 








I 


I 


2 


2 


2 


2 


3 


3 


27 


2.74 


24 " 








I 


2 


2 


2 


3 


3 


3 


3 


33 


3-34 


28 " 





I 


I 


2 


2 


3 


3 


3 


4 


4 


3» 


384 


I MO. . 





I 


2 


2 


2 


3 


3 


4 


4 


4 


42 


4.17 


2 " 


I 


2 


3 


4 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


«3 


».34 


3 '' 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


9 


10 


II 


13 


1.25 


12.50 


6 " 


3 


5 


8 


TO 


13 


15 


18 


20 


23 


25 


2.50 


25.00 


I YR . . 


5 


10 


15 


20 


25 


30 


35 


40 


45 


50 


5.00 


50.00 



G% 


$1 



$2 



$3 



$4 



$5 



|6 


$7 


$8 


$9 


$10 


$100 


$1000 


4 DAY. 








I 


I 


I 


7 


67 


8 " 











I 


I 


I 


I 


I 


I 


T 


13 


1-33 


12 " 










I 


I 


I 


I 


2 


2 


2 


20 


2.00 


16 " 




I 




I 


I 


2 


2 


2 


2 


3 


27 


2.67 


20 " 




I 




2 


2 


2 


2 


3 


3 


3 


33 


3-33 


24 " 




I 




2 


2 


2 


3 


3 


4 


4 


40 


4.00 


I MO. . 




I 




2 


3 


3 


4 


4 


5 


5 


50 


5-00 


2 " 




2 




4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


1. 00 


10.00 


3 " 




3 




6 


8 


9 




12 


14 


15 


1.50 


15.00 


6 " 


3 


6 


9 


12 


IS 


18 


21 


24 


27 


30 


3.00 


30.00 


I YR. .. 


6 


12 


18 


24 


30 


3f 


42 


48 


54 


60 


6.00 


60.00 



7% 


$1 


$2 


$3 


$4 


$5 


$6 


$7 


$8 


$9 


$10 


$100 


$1000 


4 DAY. 
































8 


77 


8 " 






















I 


I 


1 


15 


1-55 


12 " 














I 


I 




I 


2 


2 


23 


2.31 


16 " 











I 


1 


I 




2 


2 


3 


31 


3.10 


20 " 








1 


1 


I 


2 




3 


3 


4 


3« 


3.«4 


B4 " 








I 


1 


2 


2 




3 


4 


5 


4b 


4.b2 


I MO. . 







2 


2 


3 


3 




4 


5 


6 


S« 


5-83 


2 " 


I 




3 


s 


6 


7 




9 


10 


12 


1.17 


II. b7 


3 " 


2 




S 


7 


9 


10 


12 


14 


16 


18 


1-75 


17-50 


6 " 


4 




II 


M 


18 


21 


25 


28 


32 


35 


3- SO 


35 00 


I YR. . 


7 


14 


21 


28 


35 


42 


49 


5f 


b3 


70 


7.00 


70.00 



MISCELLAi^EOUS SUBJECTS AND TABLES. 



383 



TABLE OF WAGES BY THE WEEK. 

(Computed on a basis of ten hours' labor per day.) 



i 


I 


2 


% 


8 


9 


i 
I 1 2 


3 


4 5 


6 


^ 


Hr. 


Hrs. H 


rs. 


Hrs. 


Hrs. 


Day. 


Days. 


Days. 


Days. Days. 

1 


Days. 


$3 


• 05 


.10 


2,S 


.40 


•45 


•50 


1. 00 


1.50 


2.00 ' 2.50 


3.00 


4 


.06^ 


.i3i 


3.A 


•533 


.60 


-66i 


1-333 


2.00 


2-661 3.33! 


4.00 


5 


.o8i 


.i6s 


4iii 


.66§ 


•75 


•«3i 


1.661 


2.50 


3-335 4-i6§ 


5-00 


b 


. 10 


.20 


SO 


.80 


.qo 


1. 00 


2.00 


3.00 


4.00 1 5.00 


6.00 


7 


.Ilg 


-II 


5H 


•93A 


1.05 


i.i6§ 


2.33^ 


3-50 


4-665 5-83J 


7.00 


8 


•133 


668 


1.06I 


1.20 


1-333 


2.66i 


4.00 


5-33^ 6.663 


8.00 


9 


•15 


.30, 


7"5, 


1.20 


I-3S 


1.50 


3.00 


4-5° 


6.00 ■ 7.50 


9.00 


lO 


.164 


•33^ 


«34 


1..33* 


1.50 


i.66§ 


3-333 


5.00 


6 66| 8. 33 J 
7-33s 9-i6§ 


10.00 


ii 


.i8i 


•36§ 


91S 


1.46-i 


1.65 


1-833 


3-60I 


5-50 


n.oo 


t2 


20 


.40 I 


GO 


i.bo 


1.80 


2.00 


4.00 


6.00 


8.00 10.00 


12.00 


13 


2I§ 


•433 I 


08^ 


^•7^4 


1-95 


2.163 


4 334 


6.50 


8.66| 10.83J 


13.00 


14 


•235 


.46§ I 


i6i 


i.86§ 


2.10 


2-333 


4-66S 


7.00 


9.334 ii-66§ 


14.00 


15 


25 


.50 I 


^■^ 


2.00 


2.25 


2.50 


5 00 


7-50 


10.00 12.50 


15.00 


lb 


.2b^ 


•534 I 


3^4 


2-135 


2.40 


2 66§ 5.33I 


8.00 


10 66| 13.33^ 
11.334 14 •i6§ 


16.00 


'I 


.28^ 


.56S I 


4i§ 


2.26§ 


2-55 


2.83i 5.66§ 


8.50 


17.00 


i8 


.30 


.60 I 


.SO 


2.40 


2.70 


3 00 6.00 


9.00 


12. 00 15.00 


18.00 


19 


•3i| 


•635 1 


s8A 


2-533 


2.8s 


3.i6§ 6.:)3J 


9-50 


12.66^ 15. 8H 


19.00 


20 


■333 


.66§ I 


66§ 


2.661 


3.00 


3-33^1 6.66§ 


10.00 


t3-33§i6.66§ 


20.00 


24 


.40 


.80 2 


00 


3-20 1 


3.0O 


4.00 


8.00 


12.00 


16.00 20.00 

1 


24.00 



TABLE OF WAGES BY THE DAY. 

(Computed on a basis of ten hours' labor per day.) 





25c. 


37*c. 


50c. 


62^ c. 


75c. 


87ic. 


$1.00 


S1.12J 


$1.25 


i hour.. 


.01} 


• oil 


.02^ 


•0.3^ 


.03f 


.04i 


-05 


.05f 


.o6i- 


I " 


.02^ 


•03f 


•05 


.obi 


.07i 


.o8| 


..10 


."i 


.12i 


2 •' 


•05 


-07^ 


.10 


.I2i 


•15 


.17* 


.20 


.22^ 


•25 


5 *' 


.I2i 


.i8f 


•25 


-3ii 


•37i 


•43l 


•50 


•56i 


.62^ 


8 ''• 


.20 


•30 


.40 


-50 


.60 


.70 


.80 


•90 


.$1.00 


9 " 


.22| 


•33f 


•45 


-.S6i 


.67* 


•78f 


.90 


I.OI:^ 


I.I2J 


I day... 


•25 


•37i 


«. -5° 


.62i 


•75 


.87i 


$1.00 


I.I2i 


1.25 


2 days.. 


•50 


* -75 


li.oo 


$I.2S 


$1.50 


$1.75 


2 00 


2.25 


2.50 


3 " 


©I. 00 


$I.I2j 


1.50 


1-871 


2.25 


2.62^ 


3.00 


3-37* 


3-75 


4 


1.50 


2.00 


2.50 


3 00 


3-50 


4.00 


4 50 


5-00 


1 !! 


1.25 


1.87* 


2.50 


3 i2i 


3-75 


4-37* 


5-00 


5-62i 


6.25 


6 " 


1.50 


2.25 


3.00 


3-75 


4-50 


5-25 


6.00 


6.75 


7-50 





$i.37i 


$1.50 


$1.62^ $1.75 


$i.87i 


$2.00 


$2.I2j 


$2.25 


$2.37i 


i hour.. 

1 " 

2 " 

5 " 


.06^ 
.^3l 


•07* 

•15 

•30 




.o8f 
.17* 
-35 




37^ 
9.3l 


.10 
.20 

$1.00 


.io| 

$i.o6i 


.224 




8 " 
T day... 


$1.10 

I -231 

i^37^ 


$1 .20 
1-35 
1.50 


fi.30 

1-461: 

I.62i 


fi.40 
t-57i 
1-75 


I 


50 
68? 
87A 


1.60 
1.80 
2.00 


1.70 
i-9ii 

2.12i 


1.80 
2.02^ 
2.25 


1.90 
2.13I 

2.37J 


2 days.. 


2-75 

4.12i 


3.00 
4-50 


3^25 
4.87i 


3-50 
5-25 


3 

5 


^i 


4.00 
6.00 


4-25 
6.:!7^ 


4-50 
6.75 


4-75 
7.12J 


^ u 


5-5° 
6.87i 


6.00 
7-50 


6.50 

8.12^ 


7.00 

8-75 


7-5° 

9 37* 


8.00 

10. CO 


8.50 
10.62^ 


9.00 
11.25 


9 50 
II. 87* 


6 


8.25 


9.00 


9-75 


10.50 


11 


25 


12.00 


12.75 


13-50 


14.25 



384 



GENERAL TOPICS. 



I ■* lOVO t^OO ON o 





•33a 


1- N m ■«- lONO t^OO On O M <N m ^ lONO t^OO O- w N i^ -* "^O t^OO On 


t^t^c^t^t^r^t^r^t^t^t^t^t^t^t^r~.t>t^t-^r^t:~-t^t~-t^t~r~t^t^t^t^t^ 


•AON 


InS-v^nS^I^I^I-nS^I-nI^I s s s s s i si f I^Ng^Ni^f vH^I^nI^I^nI 


•130 


ON O M N m Tj- loNO f--00 ON M D rr, r^ lO^O r^oo ON -■ N ro 'I- lONO t^oo ON 
rO'<i--^'»--*-«-->r-<f-<r'*-'^LOLoiou-iiOLniomiri lono nononononOnononovo 

NOVONONONONONONONONONONONONONONONONONONONONONONONONONONOVONONO 


•jdas 


On >- IN ro T^ u^NQ t-^co On M (Ni m x^ lono rvoo on o m cni r<-, tJ- iono t^oo 


nONONOnONONONOnOnOnOnONONONONOnOnOnonOnOnOnonovOnONOVOVOnONO 


•Sny 


'li Kco 00 cS o?oo o?M do~oo c?" o- On on S S <>^ o^'oN o^ 8 O ? o"o 'o 


•Ainf 


t-~00 O - N m Tf LONO t^OO On - N ro -t lOno rvOO On O " N rO ^r lONO f^ 

^■^Tj-lOLOlOlOir)U-)LOLOlO V0>0 NONONONDNONOVONONO tvt^t^t-^t^t^t-t^ 


°3unf 


f-~00 ON M <N ro T^ lONO t^oo O^O^- <^ m ^ >r\o t^OO on O - M rn ^ lONO 


•Abim 


H H 1 ? 1 1 1 ? ? I'l H ?> s> s! H ?> g; s> ?; ^ ^ ?> s ^ s ^ 


•[udv 


NO t--00 on « (N ro 'J- lONO t^oo ON iH w rr, ^ .ONO t^oo On - « ro T^ in 
in ir> ir, tONO NONC.NONONONONONONO t^t^r-.t^t^t^t^t^t^ r^oo 00 00 oo oo oo 


•qoJBM 


lONO I^OO ON >- IN ro -^ u-iNO I--00 On M w ro ^ lONO I--00 On w N rO ^ lO 


•qaj 


fvOO On " IN r<-i Tl- LONO r--00 On >H M ro ^ lono t^OO On ►-■ <N m -± 


•UBf 


NO f^OO On M f) I^O ■* LANO t^OO On - IN rO >»- LONO t^ 00 O Q - IN TO -*" lOVO 






•33a 


S5^ Pi<^ g; - ^ ^ 5 !5^ -°° ? o :;, S, S ;* i;?^ !;^<» g;^ ^ ^ ^^^ 

ror^roronforomrororororororofooomromroromrocorororof, roro 


•AON 


ooooo2M2^?»'2Er'2 2'8S?5««N'8«'SS'^P^?^S;5; 


mMrororororommrorororomroromrocorofOrororotnroromrriro 


•530 


^ tQ"?. (^'S. Koo 00 <S t» 00 00 00 c»"oo (» ON ON ON S o^ S^ o^'on o^ o ? o" 

N(N<NNNWNINw(N0)CJNIN<NMNNCN(NWMC>)f»WNrOrOrOmrO 


•jd^S 


■a- lONO t^OO On >- N rO ■* lONO t-^OO On w N m -J- lONO t^OO On - IN l-O 

-«-■<)-r}-,^•.j-,^u-,u^lOlOlOlOLO^ou^ iono nonononononononono t^t^t^i^ 

NINN(N(NN<NN<NNC<INNINN0IPIW(NINNNNO<NN(NNCi(N 


■Sny 


m ■«■ lONO r^oo On " (N ro Ti- u^vo r^oo On « N i^ -^ lono f-oo On « (Nj ro 
„„„«„„M(N,(Ni(NNNCNi(NPiN<Nirororororororororrro-^-a-^-* 

MNNCJMCJNONOCNINCNINiNClNPICIPINNNNPIONWNMN 


•Ain[ 


M ro ^ LONO t^oo on 1- N ro ■* lono 1^00 On >- N ro T^ lovO tv.oo On O m cs 
OOOOOOOOOOCOOOOO OnO-O-OnOnOnOnOnOnOnO O 00 00 Om " M 




•3unf 


M ro '^ LONO t^OO ON -1 P) f^ ■* LONO I^OO 0> - (NJ ro Tl- lONC t^OO ON O M 
lO to >0 lO LO lO LO LONO NONONONCNONONONONO t^t-~t^t^r^i-.t^t^t^ t^oo 00 




•Xbw 


1- C^ ro Tj- lONO t^co ON O w N ro ^ lOVO 1^00 O- O i-i N ro Th iono t-^oo On O - 




•ludv 


M N ro -^ lONO t-~00 On O - <N" ro -1- LONO r^OO 0> M N fO ■* lONO t^oo o- o 
OnOnOnOnOnOnOnOnOnOOOOOOOOOOm-mj-'J J^ i^'S 2^ S 


•qDiBW 


M N ro •* >o\0 t^oo On w N ro ■* lONO t^oo O- O M M rri ^ lovn i^ro ctn n 
NovONOvoNONONONONONo t~.t>.c-~iN^r^ t-T. t^TL fioo 00 (» TO 00 00 S ob 5o cc on 


•q3^ 


'^,.^'t. )S'S> j^^'sSn s; 2. h si !ri i^'S. >^o3 o> o ^ n ^ ^r long t^co on 


•UBf 


M N ro ^ invO t^OO On M N rr, ■* IONO 1^00 ON « N fO ■+ lOVO t^OO On O ►- 


«N(NN(N(NINM<NPIMrO 







INO t^OO On O 



LONO txOO On O " 



MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS AND TABLES. 385 

DOMESTIC POSTAGE. 

First Class. — Letters and all written matter, whether 
sealed or unsealed, and all other matter sealed, nailed, sewed, 
tied, or fastened in any manner, so that it cannot be easily 
examined, tivo cents pey- ounce or fraction thereof. A " Spe- 
cial Delivery " ten-cent stamp when attached to a letter, in 
addition to the lawful postage, shall entitle the letter to im- 
mediate delivery at or within one mile of any post-office. 
Postal cards, one cent each; with paid reply, two cents each 

Second Class. — All regular newspapers, magazines and 
other periodicals issued at intervals not exceeding three 
months; the postage is one cent for each four ounces, payable 
by postage stamps. 

Third Class. — Embraces printed books, pamphlets, cir- 
culars, engravings, lithographs, proof-sheets and manu- 
script accompanying the same, and all matter of the same 
general character, and not having the character of personal 
correspondence. Circulars produced by hektograph or sim- 
ilar process, or by electric pen, are rated as third class. 
The limit of weight for mail matter of the third class is four 
pounds, except in the case of single books exceeding that 
weight. The rate of postage on mail matter of the third 
class is otie cent for each two ouncqs or fraction thereof. 

Fourth Class. — All mailable matter not included in the 
three preceding classes, which is so prepared for mailing as 
to be easily taken from the wrapper and examined. Rate. 
one cent per ounce or fraction thereof, except seeds, roots, 
cuttings, bulbs, plants, and scions, which are one cent per 
two ounces. Limit of weight, 4 lbs. Full prepayment com- 
pulsory. Liquids and other like injurious matter not admit- 
ted except under conditions which may be learned at any 
post-office. 

Registry fee, eight cents, which, with the postage, must be 
fully prepaid. The name and address of sender must be 
given on the outside of the envelope or wrapper. 

FOREIGN POSTAGE. 

To all parts of the Universal Postal Union (embracing 
nearly every civilized country): 

On Letters, jix;« cents for each ounce or fraction thereof; each 
additional ounce or fraction, three cents. Double rates arc col- 
lected on delivery of unpaid or short-paid letters. 



386 GENERAL TOPICS.' 

On newspapers, books, pamphlets, photographs, sheet 
music, maps, engravings, and similar printed matter, one 
cent for each two ounces or fraction thereof. 

To Canada (including Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, 
Manitoba, and Prince Edward Island): Letters, tzuo cents for 
each ounce or fraction thereof; Books, Circulars, and similar 
printed matter, one cent for each two ounces or fraction there- 
of; Second Class Matter, same' as in the United States; 
Samples and Merchandise, one cent per ounce. Packages 
must not exceed 4 lbs. 6 oz. in weight; prepayment compul- 
sory. 

To Mexico: Letters, Postal Cards, and printed matter, 
same rates as in the United States. Samples, one cent per 
ounce; Merchandise other than Samples can only be sent 
by Parcel Post. 

Money Order Fees. — For Money Orders in denomina- 
tions of $100 or less, the following fees are charged: Orders 
not exceeding I2. 50, 3c.; over I2.50 to $5, 5c. ; l5to$io, 8c. ; 
$10 to $20, IOC. ; $20to $30, I2C. ; $30 to $40, 15c. ; $40tol5o, 
i8c.; $50 to $60, 20c.; $60 to I75, 25c.; $75 to $100, 30c. 

Express Money Orders may be bought of the leading express 
companies at the following rates: Not over $2.50, 3c.; $2.50 to 
$5, 5c.; $5 to $10, 8c.; $10 to $20, loc; $20 to $30, 12c.; $30 
to $40, 15c.; $40 to $50, i8c.; $50 to $60, 20c.; $60 to $75, 25c.; 
$75 to $100, 30c.; over $100 at above rates. 

international or foreign money-order fees. 

On Algeria, Belgium, British India, Cape Colony, Constan- 
tinople, Denmark, Dominion of Canada, Egypt, England, 
France, German Empire, Hong Kong, Ireland, Italy, Ja- 
maica, Japan, Newfoundland, New South Wales, Ne\^ 
Zealand, Portugal, Sandwich Islands, Scotland, Shanghai 
Sweden, Switzerland, Tasmania, Victoria. 

For Orders of $10, or less, loc. 1 Over $50, not exceeding $60, 60c. 
Over $10, not exceeding S20, 20c. 1 Over $60, not exceeding $70, 70c. 
Over $20, not exceeding $30, 30c. | Over $70, not exceeding $80, 80c. 
Over $30, not exceeding $40, 40c. I Over $80, not exceeding $90, 90c. 
Over $40, not exceeding $50, 50c. | Over $90, not exceeding |ioo, $1. 

Orders can also be obtained on Austria and the East Indies 
by remittance through the Postal Department of Switzer- 
land, subject to the rates of the Swiss Department to those 
countries. Also on Norway and the Netherlands, through 
the Postal Department of the German Empire, subject to 
the rates of the German Department to those countries. 



WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 367 



III. WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 

CUSTOMARY SYSTKM OF AVEIGHTS AND 
MEASURES. 

I. Weig^hts. 

A. AVOIRDUPOIS WEIGHT. 

I ton = 2000 pounds (lbs.) ;* 

t lb. B i6 ounces (oz.) = 256 drams = 768 scruples = 7680 grains ; 

I oz. = 16 drams = 48 scruples = 480 grains ; 

I dram = 3 scruples = 30 grains ; 

I scruple = 10 grains. 

B. APOTHECARIES' WEIGHT, FOR DRUGS. 

I lb. = 12 oz. = 96 drams = 288 scruples = 5760 grains; 

I oz. = 8 drams = 24 scruples = 480 grains; 

I dram = 3 scruples = 60 grains; 

I scruple = 20 grains. 

C TROY WEIGHT, FOR JEWELS AND PRECIOUS METALS. 

z lb. = 12 oz. = 24 carats — 240 pennyweight (dwt.) = 5760 grains ; 

z oz. = 2 carats = 20 dwts. = 480 grains ; 

z carat = 10 dwts. = 240 grains ; 

I dwt. = 94 grains. 

II. Measures. 

A. LINEAR. ^ 

I mile = 8 furlongs (frigs.) = 80 chains = 320 rods = 528a feet ;+ 
z furlong = 10 chains = 40 rods = 660 feet; 

1 chain = 4 rods = 66 feet ; 

I rod = i6Jfeet; 
z chain = 100 links ; 

z link = 7.92 inches ; 
X yard = 3 feet = 36 inches ; 
I foot =12 inches. 

B. SURFACE, 
t square mile — 640 acres ; 

z acre = 10 square chains = 160 sq. rods = 4840 sq. yds. 
= 43,560 square feet. 

* T long ton = 20 imperial hundredweights (cwt ) = 2240 pounds. 
t I sea mile (Admiralty knot) = 6080 feet{ or 1.1515 statute mile. 



388 GEN^ERAL TOPICS. 

C. CAPACITY. 

I. DRY MEASURE. 

f bushel = the volume of 77.627 lbs. of distilled water at ^'C; 

I bushel =. 4. pecks = 8 gallons = 32 quarts = 2150.4 cubic inches; 

1 peck = 2 gallons = 8 quarts = 537.6 " " 

I gallon = 4 quarts = 268.8 " " 

I quart = 67.2 " ** 

2. LIQUID MEASURE. 

t gallon = the volume of 8.3388822 lbs. = 58,373 troy grains of distilled 

water at 4° C.;* 
I gallon = 4 quarts = 8 pints = 32 gills = 231 cubic inches ; 
I quart = 2 pints — 8 gills = 57.75 " " 

I pint = 4 gills = 28.88 " " 

Metric System of Weights and Measures, 

I. LINEAR MEASURES, 
z meter (m) = 10 decimeters (dm)= 100 centimeters (cm) = 1000 millimeter 
(mm) = .1 decameters (Dm) = .01 Hectometer (Hm) = .001 Kilometa 
(Km) = .0001 Myriameter (Mm). 

I Mm = ID Km = 100 Hm = 1000 Dm = 10,000 m; 
I Km = 10 Hm = 100 Dm = 1,000 m; 
I Hm = 10 Dm = 100 m; 
I Dm = 10 m ; 
I m =s ID dm CT 100 cm = 1000 mm ; 
I dm ^ 10 cm := 100 mm ; 
I cm = 10 mm. 

a. SURFACE MEASURES. 
I Are (a) = 100 square meters (sq. m.) = .01 hectare (ha) ; 
I Are = I sq. Dm. = 100 square m ; 
I sq. Km = 100 Ha = 10,000 A = 1,000,000 sq. m ; 
I Ha = 100 A = 10,000 sq. m ; 
I A = 100 sq. m. 

3. MEASURES OF CAPACITY. 
I liter (1) = I cubic decimeter (cdm) = 1,000 cubic centimeters (c. c.) ^ 
o.ooi cubic meter (cbm) = 10 deciliters (dl) = 100 centiliters (cl) = .01 
hectoliter (hi). 

I HI = 10 Dl = 100 1 = 1,000 dl = 10,000 cl; 

1 Dl = 10 1 = 100 dl = 1,000 cl ; 

I I = 10 dl = 100 cL 

4. WEIGHTS. 

1 kilogram (kg") = 100 decagrams (Dg) = 1000 grams (g); 

I gram = 10 decigrams (0^) - loo centigrams (eg) = 1,000 millicrraois (mg): 

\ ton = 1000 Kg = 100,000 Dg = i,ooo,oGo g ; 

100 Kg = 10,000 Dg = 100.000 g ; 

I Kg = 100 Dg = 1,000 g. 



* I Imperial gallon = 277.274 cub. inches, or .16046 cub. foot; it equals 
J.20032, or very nearly ij U. S. liquid gallons, i cub. foot = 1728 cub 
inches - 7.48 U. S. liquid gallons = 6.43 U. S. dry galions = 6.23 Imperial 



WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 



389 



Conversion of U. S. Weights and Measures to Metric^ 
and vice versa. 



Inches to 

Millimeters. 
r — 25.4001 

Meter to 

Inches. 

I ■— 39-3700 



LINEAR. 
Feet to Meters. Yards to Meters. 

.3048 .9144 

Meter to Feet. Meter to Yards. 

3.2808 1.0936 



Miles to 

Kilometers. 

1.6094 

Kilometer to 
Miles. 
.6214 



SQUARE. 



Sq. Inches to 
Sq. Cenimr. 
= 6.452 

Sq. Centime, 
to sq. in. 
= -1550 



Sq. Feet to Sq. 

Decimeters. 

9.290 

Sq. Meters 

to Sq. Feet. 

10.764 



Square Yards to 

Square Meters. 

.836 

Square Meters 

to Square Yards. 

i.iq6 



Acres to 

Hectares. 

.4047 

Hectares to 
Acres. 
2.471 



CUBIC. 



Cubic In. to 
Cu. Centmr. 

; = 16387 

Cu. Centmrs 
to Cubic In. 
t ~ .0610 



Cubic Feet to 
Cubic Meters. 
.0283 

Cu. Decimeters 
to Cubic Inches. 
61.023 



Cubic Yards to 

Cubic Meters. 

.765 

Cubic Meters to 
Cubic Feet. 

35.314 



Bushels to 

Hectoliters, 

•3524 

Cubic Meters to 

Cubic Yards. 

1.308 



CAPACITY. 

Fluid Drams -pi.^-j n„r.^^ »« 

to Cu. Cent.. Cubic Centi^et^r. ^u-rts to Liters. Gallons to Liters. 



meters 
I = 3-70 

Cu. Centi- 
meters to 
Fluid Drams. 
1= .27 



29-57 



.9464 



Centiliters to Liters Decaliters to 
Fluid Ounces, to Quarts. Gallons. 



3.7854 

Hectoliters 
to Bushels. 



•338 



1.0567 2.6417 



.8377 



WEIGHT. 



Grains to 
Milligrams. 

I = 64.7989 

Milligrams 
to Grains. 
I = .01543 

Quintals to 
Pounds Av. 
= 220.46 



Avoirdupois 
Ounces to Grams. 

28.3495 

Kilograms to 
Grains. 
15432.36 



Avoirdupois 
Pounds to Kilo- 
Grams. 
•4536 

Hectograms to 
Ounces Av. 

3.5274 



Milliers or Tonnes 

tc Pounds Av. 

2204.6 



Troy Ounces 
to Grams. 
31.1035 

Kilograms to 

Pounds Av. 

2.2046 

Kilograms to 

Ounces Troy. 

32.1507 



GENERAL TOPICS. 



KILOGRAMS CONVERTED INTO POUNDS 
AVOIRDUPOIS. 



Kilos. 


o 


1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


o.o 


.ooo 


.022 


.044 


.066 


.088 


. 110 


.132 


-154 


.176 


.194 


.1 


.220 


• 243 


.265 


.287 


•309 


•331 


•353 


-375 


-397 


.419 


.2 


.441 


.463 


.485 


• 507 


•529 


•551 


•573 


•595 


.bi7 


.039 


•3 


.661 


.683 


•705 


.728 


-750 


.772 


•794 


.816 


-838 


.860 


•4 


.882 


.904 


.926 


.94« 


.970 


.992 


1.014 


1.036 


1.058 


1.080 


'5 


I. 102 


1. 124 


1.146 


1. 168 


1.190 


1.213 


1-235 


1-257 


1.279 


1.301 


.6 


1-323 


1-345 


1-367 


i.3«9 


1-411 


I 433 


1-455 


'•177 


1.499 


1.521 


• 7 


1-543 


1-565 


1.S87 


i.^oq 


1.6^.1 


1-653 


1.676 


1.698 


1.720 


1.742 


.8 


1.764 


1.786 


1.808 


1.830 


1.8S2 


1.874 


i.8qb 


1.918 


1.940 


1.962 


•9 


1.984 


2.006 


2.028 


2.050 


2.072 


2.094 


2.116 


2.138 


2.161 


2 183 



POUNDS CONVERTED INTO 


KILOGRAMS 




^ounds. 





. 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


0.0 
.1 
.2 
•3 
•4 

•7 
.8 
-9 


.000 
•045 
.091 
.136 
.181 
.227 




005 
050 
095 
141 
t86 
231 

277 
392 
367 
413 


.009 

-054 
.100 
.145 
.191 
.230 
.281 
•327 
•371 
-417 




014 
059 
104 
150 
195 
240 
286 

376 
422 


.otS 
.064 
.109 
•154 
.200 
•245 
.290 
.336 
•381 
.426 


.023 
.068 
•113 
•159 
.204 
•249 
•295 
•340 
.386 
•431 




027 
073 
118 
163 
209 

254 
299 
345 
390 
435 




032 
077 
122 
168 
213 
259 
304 
349 
395 
440 




036 
082 
127 
172 
218 
263 
308 
354 
399 
445 


.041 
.086 
132 
.177 
.222 
.268 

Isi 
.404 

-449 



INCHES REDUCED TO DECIMALS OF A FOOT. 

(Trautwine.) 



Ins. 


Foot. 


Ins. 


Foot. 


Ins. 


Foot. 


Ins. 
6 


Foot. 

.5000 


Ins. 


Foot. 


r 


.0026 




•0B33 


2 


.1667 


10 


■8333 


IB 


.0052 


^% 


.0938 


2^8 


-2083 


6^2 


-5417 


lol^ 


.8750 


lA 


.0104 


1/4 


.1042 


3 


.2500 


7 


-5833 


II 


.9167 


% 


.0208 


1% 


.1146 


3H 


.2917 


7^! 


.6250 


11^2 


.9583 


.031^ 


\}^ 


.1250 


4 


•3333 


8 


.6667 


12 


1.0000 


l^ 


.0417 


1% 


•1354 


454 


- 375° 


8^3 


.7083 






% 


.0521 


j% 


.1458 


5_ 


.4167 


9,, 


.7500 






§4 


.0625 


1% 


-1563 


5^3 


•4583 


9% 


.7917 






% 


.0729 



















OUNCES REDUCED TO DECIMALS OF A POUND. 



06 lb 

13 

19 

25 

3^ 

38 

43 

50 



9 oz. 

10 " 

11 " 


= 


56 1b. 

69 


12 " 


= 


75 


13 " 


:= 


81 " 


14 " 


= 


88 " 


IE" 


= 


r- 



WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 391 

WEIGHT AND MEASURE CONVERSION TABLE. 





od 


!r, sj 








^^ 




't 


in 


Is 




en 

2 S 


1^' 


U5 


li 


2 


2S 
2 -j' 






^ 




S'^ 


Oo 




tS'^ 


I 


25-4 


.0394 


• 305 


3.28 


1 .609 


.621 


.8*^8 


I -153 


2 


50.8 


.0787 


.610 


6.56 


3-219 


1.243 


i-7?S 


2.306 


3 


76.2 


.1181 


.914 


9.84 


4.828 


1.864 


2 603 


3-458 


4 


101.6 


•1575 


1. 219 


13.12 


6-437 


2.486 


3.470 


4. 611 


5 


127.0 


.1969 


1-524 


16.40 


8.047 


3-107 


4-338 


5-764 


6 


152. + 


.2362 


1.829 


19.69 


g.656 


3-728 


5 205 


6 917 


7 


177-8 


.■^756 


2.134 


22.97 


11.265 


4-350 


6.073 


8.070 


8 


20. 2 


•3150 


2.438 


26 25 


12.875 


4.971 


6.940 


9.222 


9 


228.6 


•3543 


2-743 


29.53 


14.484 


5-593 


7.808 


10.375 







. 






-J5* 


. 


</) 


(A 




2S 




?3 


li 




U 

. 3 


iJ 
^9. 


;= 3 

can 




crc/) 

t/3 


a2 

C/5 




td 


3 3 


X5U 

u2 




E 


^2 


I 


.0929 


10.76 


•405 


2.47 


.028 


35-3 




3S 


2.84 


2 


.1858 


2^-53 


.809 


4.94 


-057 


70.6 




70 


5-68 


3 


.2787 


32.29 


1. 214 


7 


41 


.085 


105.9 


I 


06 


8.51 


4 


.3716 


43.06 


1. 619 


9 


88 


.113 


141.3 


I 


41 


"•35 


5 


-4645 


53.82 


2.024 


12 


3b 


.142 


176.6 


I 


76 


14.19 


6 


•5574 


64.58 


2.428 


14 


83 


.170 


211 .q 


2 


II 


'7-03 


7 


.6503 


75.. 35 


2.833 


17 


30 


.19S 


247.2 


2 


47 


19.86 


8 


-7432 


86.11 


3.238 


19 


77 


.226 


282. =; 


2 


82 


22.70 


9 


.8361 


96,88 


3.642 


22 


24 


-255 


3^7-» 


3 


'7 


25-54 








T3 


















3 

E 


Jo 


. 

Si 
i3 


i5 

ll 




l.i 


U5 

c 

■" 

^0 


. 

§0 


2 «5 
3CI, 




[I, 


u 


a 


iJ 





hJ 








I 


29.6 


-338 


05 


I 06 


3-79 


.26 


28 3 


.063 


2 


59-1 


.676 




89 


2 II 


7-57 


•53 


S6 


7 


.125 


3 


88.7 


1.0T4 




84 


3-17 


IT. 36 


•79 


85 


I 


,188 


4 


"8.3 


1-352 




79 


4-23 


15-14 


1.06 


113 


4 


.2c;o 


5 


147.9 


1.690 




73 


5.28 


18.92 


1.32 


141 


8 


.313 


6 


177-4 


2.028 




68 


6.34 


22,71 


I -59 


170 


I 


-375 


7 


207.0 


2.366 




62 


7-40 


26.50 


I 85 


198 


S 


.438 


8 


236.6 


2.704 




57 


8.45 


30.23 


2. II 


226 


8 


.500 


9 


266.1 


3.042 


8 


52 


9.51 


34.07 


2.38 


255 


I 


.563 



392 GENERAL TOPICS. 

TABLE OF RECIPROCALS OF NUMBERS. 

The reciprocal of a number is the quantity obtained by 
dividing one by that number. 



No. 


Recip- 
rocal. 


No. 


Recip- 
rocal. 


NO. ' 


iecip- 
-ocal. 


No. 


Recip- 
rocal. 


I 


I. 00000 


26 


.03846 


51 


01961 


76 


.01316 


2 


. 50000 


27 


.03704 


52 


01923 


77 


.01299 


3 


•33333 


28 


•03571 


S3 


01887 


78 


.01282 


4 


.25000 


29 


.03448 


54 


01852 


79 


.01266 


5 


. 20000 


30 


•03333 


55 


01818 


80 


.01250 


6 


.16667 


31 


.03226 


56 


01786 


81 


.01235 


7 


.14286 


32 


.03125 


^l 


01754 


82 


.01220 


8 


,12500 


33 


.03030 


58 


017-24 


83 


.01205 


9 


.mil 


34 


.02941 


S9 


01695 


84 


.01190 


lO 


.10000 


35 


.02857 


60 


01667 


85 


.01176 


II 


.09091 


36 


.02778 


61 


01639 


86 


.01163 


12 


.08333 


37 


.02703 


62 


01613 


87 


.01149 


13 


.07692 


38 


.02632 


63 


01587 


88 


.01136 


M 


.07143 


39 


•02564 


64 


01563 


89 


.01124 


15 


.06667 


40 


.02500 


65 


01538 


90 


.01111 


16 


.06250 


41 


.02439 


66 


01515 


91 


.01099 


17 


.05882 


42 


.02381 


67 


01493 


92 


.01087 


18 


•05556 


43 


.02326 


68 


01471 


93 


.01075 


19 


.05263 


44 


.02273 


69 


01449 


94 


.01064 


20 


.05000 


45 


.02222 


70 


01429 


95 


.01053 


21 


.04762 


46 


.02174 


71 


01408 


96 


.01042 


22 


•04545 


47 


.02128 


72 


01389 


97 


.01031 


23 


.04348 


48 


.02083 


73 


01370 


98 


.01020 


24 


.04167 


49 


.02041 


74 


01351 


99 


.01010 


25 


.04000 


SO 


.02000 


75 


01333 


100 


.01000 



WEIGHTS AND MEASUREa 



393 



COMPARISONS OF 

(CELSIUS), AND 
SCALES. 



FAHRENHEIT, CENTIGRADE 
REAUMUR THERMOMETER 



Fahren- 
heit. 


Centi- 
grade. 


Reaumur. 


Fahren- 
heit. 


Centi- 
grade. 


Reaumur. 


-f2I2 


+100 


-fSo 


+158 


~+7o 


+56 


211 


99.44 


79-56 


157 


69.44 


55 56 


2IO 


98.89 


79.11 


156 


68.89 


55-11 


209 


98.33 


78.67 


155 


68.33 


54-67 


208 


97.78 


78.22 


154 


67.78 


54.22 


207 


97.22 


77.78 


153 


67.22 


53 78 


206 


96.67 


77-33 


152 


66.67 


53-33 


205 


96.11 


76.89 


151 


66.11 


52.89 


204 


95-55 


76.44 


150 


65-55 


52.44 


203 


95 


76 


149 


65 


52 


202 


94.44 


75.56 


148 


64.44 


51-56 


201 


93 89 


75-" 


147 


63.89 


51. II 


200 


93 33 


74.67 


146 


6333 


50.67 


199 


92.78 


74.22 


145 


62.78 


50.22 


198 


92.22 


73.78 


144 


62.22 


49-78 


197 


91.67 


73-33 


143 


61.67 


49.33 


196 


91. II 


72.89 


142 


61. II 


48.89 


195 


90.55 


72.44 


141 


60.55 


48.44 


194 


90 


72 


140 


60 


48 


193 


89.44 


71-56 


139 


59.44 


47-56 


192 


88.89 


71. II 


138 


58.89 


47.11 


191 


88.33 


70.67 


137 


58.33 


46.67 


190 


87.78 


70.22 


136 


57.78 


46.22 


189 


87.22 


69.78 


135 


57.22 


45-78 


188 


86.67 


69-33 


134 


56.67 


45-33 


187 


86.11 


68.89 


133 


56.11 


44.89 


186 


85.55 


68.44 


132 


55.55 


44.44 


185 


85 


68 


13^ 


55 


44 


184 


84.44 


67.56 


130 


54.44 


43.56 


183 


83.89 


67.11 


129 


53.89 


43." 


182 


83.33 


66.67 


128 


53.33 


42.67 


181 


82.78 


66.22 


127 


52.78 


42.22 


180 


82.22 


65-78 


126 


52.22 


41.78 


179 


81.67 


65.33 


125 


51-67 


41.33 


178 


81. II 


64.89 


124 


51.11 


40.89 


177 


80.55 


64.44 


123 


50.55 


40.44 


176 


80 


64 


122 


50 


40 


175 


79-44 


63.56 


121 


49-44 


39.56 


174 


78.89 


63.11 


120 


48.89 


39-" 


173 


78.33 


62.67 


119 


48-33 


38.67 


172 


77-78 


62.22 


118 


47.78 


38.22 


171 


77.22 


61.78 


117 


47-22 


37.78 


170 


76.67 


61.33 


116 


46.67 


37-33 


169 


76.11 


60.89 


"5 


46.11 


36.89 


168 


75-55 


60.44 


114 


45-55 


36.44 


167 


75 


60 


"3 


45 


36 


166 


74-44 


59-56 


112 


44-44 


35 56 


165 


73 89 


59-" 


III 


43-89 


35-" 


164 


72.33 


58.67 


no 


43-33 


34-67 


X63 


72.78 


58.22 


109 


42.78 


34.22 


ysz 


71.22 


57-78 


108 


42.22 


33-78 


161 


71.67 


57-33 


107 


41.67 


33-33 


x6o 


71.11 


56.89 


106 


41. II 


32.89 


159 


70-55 


^6.44 


105 


40.55 


32.44 



394 



GENERAL TOPICS- 



COMPARISONS OF FAHRENHEIT, CENTIGRADE 
(CELSIUS), AND REAUMUR THERMOMETER 

SCAJuES. — Coniz„ued. 



Fahren- 
heit. 


Centi- 
grade. 


Reaumur. 


Fah'-en- 
heit. 


Centi- 
grade. 


Reaumur. 


+104 


+40 


+32 


+50 


+10 


+8 


103 


39-44 


31.. 56 


49 


9-44 


7.56 


102 


38.89 


31. II 


48 


8.89 


7.11 


lOI 


38.33 


30.67 


47 


8.33 


6.67 


ZOO 


37.78 


30.22 


46 


7.78 


6.22 


99 


37.22 


29.78 


45 


7.22 


5-78 


98 


36.67 


29.33 


44 


6.67 


5.33 


97 


36.11 


28.89 


43 


6.11 


4.89 


96 


35-55 


28.44 


42 


5.55 


4-44 


95 


35 


28 


41 


5 


4 


94 


34-44 


27.56 


40 


4.44 


3.56 


93 


33.89 


27.11 


39 


3-89 


3-" 


92 


33-33 


26.67 


38 


3-33 


2.67 


91 


32-78 


26.22 


37 


2.78 


2.22 


90 


32.22 


25.78 


36 


2.22 


1.78 


89 


31-67 


25.33 


35 


1.67 




88 


31. n 


24.89 


34 


I. II 


0.89 


ll 


30-55 


24.44 


33 


0.55 


0.44 


86 


30 


24 


32 








8S 


29.44 


23.56 


31 


-O.S5 


-0.44 


84 


28.89 


23.11 


30 


i.ii 


0.89 


83 


28.33 


22.67 


29 


1.67 


i.:3 


22 


27.78 


22.22 


28 


2.22 


1.78 


81 


27 22 


21.78 


27 


2.78 


2.22 


80 


26.67 


21-33 


26 


3-33 


2.67 


7? 


26. II 


20.89 


25 


3.89 


3." 


78 


25.55 


20.44 


24 


4.44 


3-56 


^l 


25 


20 


23 


5 


4 


76 


24.44 


19.56 


22 


5.55 


4.44 


75 


23.89 


19. II 


21 


6.11 


4.89 


74 


23.33 


18.67 


20 


6.67 


5.33 


73 


22.78 


18.22 


19 


7.22 


5.78 


72 


22.22 


17.78 


18 


7.78 


6.22 


71 


21.67 


17.33 


17 


8.33 


6.67 


70 


21. II 


16.89 


16 


8.89 


7.11 


69 


20.55 


16.44 


15 


9.44 


7-56 


68 


20 


16 


14 


10 


8 


67 


19.44 


15.56 


13 


10.55 


8.44 


66 


18.89 


15.11 


12 


II. II 


8,89 


65 


18.33 


14.67 


n 


11.67 


9-33 


64 


17.78 


14.22 


10 


12.22 


9.78 


63 


17.22 


13.78 


i 


12.78 


10 22 


62 


16.67 


13-33 


13.33 


10.67 


61 


16. II 


12.89 


7 


13-89 


11. II 


60 


15-55 


12.44 


6 


14.44 


11.56 


^t 


15 


12 


5 


15.00 


12 


58 


14.44 


11.56 


4 


15.55 


12.44 


57 


13.89 


11. II 


3 


16. II 


12.89 


56 


13.33 


10.67 


2 


16.67 


13-33 


55 


12.78 


10.22 


1 


17.22 


13.78 


54 


12.22 


9.78 





17.78 


14.22 


53 


11.67 


9.33 


— I 


18.33 


14.67 


52 


11. 11 


8.89 


2 


18.89 


15 " 


" 


10.55 


8.44 


3 


19.44 


15.56 



WEIGHTS A^D MEASURES. 



395 



!OMPARISONS OF FAHRENHEIT, CENTIGRADE 
(CELSIUS), AND REAU3IUR THERMOMETER 



Fahren- 
heit. 


Centi- 
grade. 


Reaumur. 


Fahren- 
heit. 


Centi- 
grade. 


Reaumur. 


-4 


— 20 


~i6 


-23 


-30-55 


-24.44 


5 


20.55 


16.44 


24 


31.11 


24.89 


6 


21.11 


16.89 


25 


31-67 


25-33 


7 


21.67 


17-33 


26 


32.22 


25. 7S 


8 


22.22 


17.78 


27 


32.78 


26.22 


9 


22.78 


18.22 


28 


33-33 


26.67 


zo 


23-33 


18.67 


29 


33 -Sg 


27.11 


II 


23.89 


19. 11 


30 


34"!V 


27.56 


12 


24.44 


19.56 


31 


35 


28 


J3 


'5 


20 


32 


35-55 


28.44 


14 


25-55 


20.44 


33 


36-11 


28.89 


«5 


26.11 


20.89 


34 


36.67 


29 -33 


i6 


26.67 


21-33 


35 


37.22 


29.78 


17 


27.22 


21.78 


36 


37.78 


30.22 


i8 


27.78 


22.22 


37 


38.3:. 


30.67 


19 


28.33 


22.67 


38 


38.89 


3i.li 


ao 


28.89 


23.11 


39 


39-44 


31-56 


21 


29.44 


23.56 


40 


40 


32.00 


22 


30 


24 









Formula for Converting Degrees Centigrade to Fahrenheit, and 
ice versa : 



«"C. = (5f-f3^)*F.; 



c. 



For Degrees Re'au?nur, substitute 4 for the figure 5 in th« 
preceding formulas. 



396 



GENERAL TOPICS. 



GOVERNMENT LAND MEASURES. 

In the system of government survey, lines running north 
and south are drawn parallel to a fixed line (principal me- 
ridian) at a distance of six miles apart ; these are called 
range lines. At right angles with these, other parallel lines 
{town lines) are drawn, which then run east and west. The 
two sets of lines form squares containing 36 square miles 
each, called toivnships. A certain number of townships 
form a county. Each square mile of a township is called a 
section, containing 640 acres, and these are numbered regu- 
larly I to 36, commencing at the northeast corner, as shown 
in the accompanying diagram. Section 16 in each township 
is set apart for school purposes. 

Sections are divided by lines running north and south, 
and east and west, into quarter sections, designated as the 
northeast quarter, northwest quarter, southwest quarter, 
and south-east quarter of the section. These quarters con- 
tain 160 acres of land each, and are again divided into 
quarters, each containing forty acres, which is the smallest 
sub-division recognized in government survey. Lands are 1 
usually sold in tracts of forty acres, or a multiple thereof, 
except in case of land bordering on lakes, which are frac- 
tional sections and may contain more or less than forty 
acres. These are called government lots. 



TOWNSHIP. 



SECIION. 



6 


5 


4 


3 


2 


X 


7 


8 


9 


10 


II 


12 


18 


17 


16 


15 


14 


13 


^9 


20 


21 


22 


23 


24 


30 


29 


28 


27 


26 


25 


31 


32 


33 


34 


35 


36 



N. W. 
Quarter. 


NWM 
of 


NE14 

of 
NEJ4 


SWM 

NEI4 


SE^ 
of 

NEM 


S. W. 
Quarter. 


S.E. 

Quarter. 



The description of a 40-acre lot would then, for example, 
read as follows: The northeast quarter of the northeast 
quarter of section i in township 24 north, range 7 west. 



WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 397 

TO MEASURE CORN ON THE COB IN CRIBS 

(Waring.) 

When the Crib is Equilateral. 

Rule. — Multiply the length in inches by the breadth in 
inches, and that again by the height in inches, and divide the 
product by 2748 (the number of cubic inches in a heaped bushel), 
and the quotient will be the number of bushels of ears. Take 
two thirds of the quotient for the number of bushels of shelled 
corn. 

Example. — Required the number of bushels of shelled corn 
contained in a crib of ears, 15 ft. long by 5 ft. wide and 10 ft. 
high. 

Solution: 180 in. (length) X 60 in. (width) X 120 in. (height) 
= 1,296,000 -7- 2748 = 471.6 heaped bushels, two thirds of which 
is 314.6 bushels, shelled. 

When the Crib is Flared at the Sides. 

Multiply half the sum of the top and bottom widths in inches 
by the perpendicular height in inches, and that again by the 
length in inches, and divide the product by 2748; the quotient 
will be the number of heaped bushels of ears. Take two 
thirds of the quotient for the number of bushels of shelled corn. 

RECKONING OF AMOUNT AND VALUE OF HAY 
IN MOWS OR STACKS. 

Four hundred and fifty cubic feet of hay is roughly esti- 
mated as a ton, but there is great variation in the ratio of 
weight to volume, ranging from less than 400 to 500 cu. ft. 
according to the kind of hay, time of cutting, and height of 
mow or stack. In general, the finer the stalk of the plant, and 
the larger the mow, the heavier the hay; also, of course, the 
more closely packed in putting away, and the nearer the 
bottom of the mow the heavier. Grass allowed to stand till 
nearly ripe before cutting will be the lighter; loose hay in 
loft will take toward 500 cubic feet to the ton; in case of 
timothy hay about 420, and in case of clover hay, about 500 
cubic feet will make a ton. 

In estimating by measurement, multiply together the fig- 
ures representing the length, width, and height of hay, and 
divide the product by the number of feet in a ton. For ex- 



398 



GEN'ERAL TOPICS. 



ample, if the hay is 40 ft. long, 16 ft. wide, and 18 ft. from 
the bottom to the top of the mow, and the bulk agreed is 
450 cub. ft. to the ton, the mow will contain 40 X 16 X 18, 
which equals 11,520 cub. ft.; 11,520 divided by 450 equals 
25.6, or 25I tons. 

The following table is from the Atnerican Agriculturist 

Table for Finding the Value of Hay. 



T3 


















C 




$4 


I5 


$6 


$7 


$8 


$9 


$10 


$11 


^ 


















50 


O.IO 


0.13 


0.15 


0.18 


0.20 


0.23 


0.25 


0.28 


70 


0.14 


0.18 


0.21 


0.25 


0.28 


0.32 


0.35 


0-39 


go 


0.18 


0.23 


0.27 


0.32 


0.36 


0.41 


0.45 


0.50 


100 


0.20 


0.25 


0.30 


0.35 


0.40 


0-45 


0.50 


0.55 


300 


0.60 


0.75 


0.90 


i-«5 


1.20 


1-35 


1.50 


1.65 


400 


0.80 


1. 00 


1.20 


1.40 


1.60 


1.80 


2.00 


2.20 


500 


1. 00 


1-25 


1.50 


1-75 


2.00 


2.25 


2.50 


2-75 


700 


1.40 


1-75 


2.10 


2-45 


2.80 


3-15 


3-50 


385 


900 


1.80 


2.25 


2.70 


3-iS 


3.60 


4 -05 


4-50 


4-95 


1000 


2.00 


2.50 


3.00 


3-SO 


4.00 


4-50 


5.00 


5-50 


1200 


2.40 


3.00 


3.60 


4.20 


4.80 


5-40 


6.00 


6.60 


1500 


3.00 


3-75 


4-50 


5-25 


6.00 


6.75 


7-50 


8.25 


1600 


3.20 


4.00 


4.80 


5.60 


6.40 


7.20 


8.00 


8.80 


1700 


3-40 


4.25 


5.10 


5-95 


6.80 


7.65 


8.50 


9-35 


1800 


3.60 


4-50 


5-40 


6.30 


7.20 


8.10 


9.00 


9.90 


1900 


3.80 


4-75 


.5-70 


6.65 


7.60 


8.55 


9-50 


10.45 


2000 


4.00 


5.00 


6.00 


7.00 


8.00 


9.00 


10.00 


11.00 



•a 
















c 
3 


$12 


$13 


$.4 


$15 


$16 


$17, 


$18 


^ 
















50 


0.30 


0.33 


0.35 


0.38 


0.40 


0.43 


0.45 


70 


0.42 


0.46 


0.49 


"•53 


0.56 


0.60 


0.63 


90 


0.54 


0.59 


0.63 


0.68 


0.72 


0.77 


0.81 


100 


0.60 


0.65 


0.70 


0.7s 


0.80 


0.85 


0.90 


300 


1.80 


1-95 


2.IO 


2.25 


2.40 


2-55 


2.70 


400 


2.40 


2.60 


2.80 


3.00 


3-20 


3-40 


3.60 


500 


3.00 


3-25 


3-50 


3-75 


4.00 


.4-25 


4-50 


700 


4.20 


4-55 


4.90 


5-25 


5.60 


5 95 


6.30 


900 


5 40 


5-85 


6.30 


6.75 


7.20 


7.65 


8.10 


1000 


6.00 


6. so 


7.00 


7-50 


8.00 


8.50 


9.00 


1200 


7.20 


7.80 


8.40 


9.00 


9.60 


10.20 


10. 8o 


1500 


9.00 


9.7s 


10.50 


11.25 


12.00 


12.75 


1350 


i6co 


9.60 


10.40 


T1.20 


12.00 


12.80 


13.60 


14.40 


1700 


10.20 


11.05 


11.90 


12.75 


13.60 


M-45 


15-30 


1800 


10.80 


11.70 


12.60 


13-50 


14.40 


15-30 


16.20 


1900 


11.40 


12.35 


13-30 


14-25 


15.20 


16.15 


17.10 


2000 


12.00 


13.00 


14.00 


15.00 


16.00 


17.00 


18.00 



WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 



399 



Annual. The price per ton of 2000 lbs. being known, it is easy 
to find the value of any fraction of a ton at $4 to $18 per ton. 
If a farmer has 1565 lbs of hay on his wagon, and the dealer 
has bought it at $7 per ton, he finds by looking across the 
table from 1500 lbs. to the column at the top of which is $7, 
that the value of 1500 lbs. at $7 is $5.25, the value of 60 lbs. 
21 cents, and the value of 5 lbs. 2 cents, making a total of 
$5.48. 

To find the value of any fraction of a ton at $7.40, $7.60, 
$7.80, etc., find the value at $7 and add to it one tenth the 
value at $4, $6, $8, etc. 

STRENGTH OF HEMP ROPES. 

Hemp rope, i in. in circumference, is calculated to sus- 
tain a weight of 200 lbs.; i| in., 450 lbs.; 2 in., 800 }bs.; 
2| in., 1250 lbs. ; 3 in. , 1800 lbs. ; 4 in., 3200 lbs. ; 5 in., 5000 
lbs.; 6 in., 7200 lbs. Hemp is considered twice as strong 
as manila, and wire rope twice as strong as hemp. ( Year- 
book U. S- Dept. Agric.) 

The diameters corresponding to the circumferences given 
are, in the preceding order: .318, .477, .636, .795, .955, 
1.27, 1.59, and 1. 91 inches. 

THE STRENGTH OF MANILA AND WIRE ROPES. 

(Cornell Univ.) 



Manila Rope. 
3 strands, 
36 in. long. 


Manila Rope. 
4 strands, 
36 in. long. 


Cast-steel Wire Rope. 
6 strands. 


Circum- 
ference. 


Breaking 
Load. 


Circum- 
ference. 


Breaking 
Load. 


Circum- 
ference. 


No. of 
Wires in 
Strand. 


Breaking 
Load. 


ins. 

1.625 

2.25 

2.375 

2.812 

3.IS8 

3-625 

4. 375 


lbs. 

1,750 

3,680 

4,750 

5,400 

6,800 

7,635 

8,980 

11,870 

15,100 

2,850 

4,930 

11,650 


ins. 

2.825 

3-375 

3-75 

4-25 

4-825 

5-375 

3-18S 

3.125 


lbs. 

4,250 

6,050 

7.700 

11,140 

14,020 

16,550 

7.700 

7,630 


ins, 

1.062 

1.375 

1-563 

1-595 

1.780 

1.938 


6 
19 
19 
19 
19 
19 


lbs. 

6,285 
11,850 
12,590 
19,500 
19,150 
21,510 


4-75 
5-125 
2.562 
3 -033 
4.188 























































400 



GENERAL TOPICS. 



IjEgali weights of grain, seeds, etc. 

The table shows the number of pounds per bushel re- 
quired by law or custom, in the sale of articles specified, in 
the several States of the Union. 



States. 



Maine 

New Hampshire 

Vermont 

Massachusetts 

Rhode Island 

Connecticut . .... 

New York 

New Jersey 

Pennsylvania 

Delaw ire 

Maryland 

District of Columbia.. 

Virginia 

West Virginia 

North Carolina 

South Carolina 

Georgia 

Florida 

Alabama 

Mississippi 

Louisiana 

Texas 

Arkansas 

Tennessee 

Kentucky 

Ohio 

Michigan 

Indiana . .. 

Illinois 

Wisconsin 

Minnesota 

Iowa. .. 

Missouri 

Kansas 

Nebraska 

South Dakota 

North Dakota . ....... 

Montana ... 

Colorado 

Idaho 

Washington 

California 

Oregon 

Oklahoma 

United States . 



48 



48 



^\ 



56 50 
56 50 
56,... 
56 50 
56, 50 
56 50 
58J... 
56.. 
56: 48 
56,48 



56,48 
56. 50 
56... 

54! 46 
56, 50 
56' 48 
56; 48 
56.48 
56,48 
56; 50 
56,... 
56: 48 
56 50 
561 50 
56... 
56 1 50 
56, 50 
56I48 
56 1 50 
56 ... 
561 ... 
561 50 
56 50 
56... 
561... 
56... 



48 



56J 60 



60 



WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 401 



ICOMMERCIAL GRADES OF GRAIN. 

(Minneapolis and Duluth Grain Inspection Board.) 

I. WHEAT. 

No. I Hard Spring Wheat. — No. i Hard Spring Wheat mu$t 
be sound, bright, and well cleaned, and must be composed 
mostly of Hard Scotch Fife, and weigh not less than fifty-eight 
pounds to the measured bushel. 

No. I Northern Spring Wheat. — No. i Northern Spring Wheat 
must be sound and well cleaned; it may be composed of the 
hard and soft varieties of spring wheat, but must contain a 
larger proportion of the hard varieties, and weigh not less than 
fifty-seven pounds to the measured bushel. 

No. 2 Northern Spring Wheat. — No. 2 Northern Spring 
Wheat must be reasonably sound and clean and of good milling 
quality, this grade to include all wheat not suitable for the higher 
grades, and must weigh not less than fifty-six pounds to the 
measured bushel. 

No. 3 Spring Wheat. — No. 3 Spring Wheat shall comprise all 
inferior, shrunken spring wheat, weighing not less than fifty-four 
pounds to the measured bushel. 

No. 4 Spring Wheat. — No. 4 Spring Wheat shall include all 
inferior spring wheat that is badly shrunken or damaged, and 
must weigh not less than forty-nine pounds to the measured 
bushel. 

Rejected Spring Wheat. — Rejected Spring Wheat shall include 
all spring wheat grown, badly bleached, or for any other cause 
unfit for No. 4 Wheat. 

Note. — Hard, flinty wheat of good color, containing no 
appreciable admixture of soft wheat, may be admitted into the 
grades of No. 2 Northern Spring and No. 3 Northern Spring 
Wheat, provided weight of the same is not more than one pound 
less than the minimum test weight required by the existing rules 
for said grades, and provided further that such wheat is in all 
other respects qualified for admission into such grades. 



402 GEN'ERAL TOPICS. 



Western White and Red Wheat. 

No. I Western Whiti: — No. i Western White shall be sound, 
well cleaned, plump, and composed of the western varieties of 
white wheat. 

No. 2 Western White. — No. 2 Western White shall be sound, 
reasonably clean, and composed of western varieties of white 
wheat. 

No. 3 Western White. — No. 3 Western White shall be composed 
of all western white wheat fit for warehousing, weighing not less 
than fifty-four pounds to the measured bushel, and not sound 
enough or otherwise unfit for the higher grades. 

Rejected Western White. — Rejected Western White shall com- 
prise all western white wheat fit for ware°housing, but unfit for 
higher grades. 

Note. — Western Red Wheat and Western Wheat shall cor- 
respond in all respects with the grades of Nos. i, 2, 3, and 
Rejected. 

Winter Wheat. 

No. I White Winter. — No. i White Winter shall be sound, 
well cleaned, reasonably p-lump, and composed of the white 
varieties. 

No. 2 White Winter. — No. 2 White Winter to be sound, 
reasonably clean, and composed of the white varieties. 

No. I Red Winter. — No. i Red Winter to be sound, well cleaned, 
reasonably plump, and composed of the red varieties. 

No. 2 Red Winter. — No. 2 Red Winter to be sound, reason- 
ably clean, and composed of the red varieties. 

No. I Winter. — No. i Winter to be ound, well cleaned, 
reasonably plump, and composed of the mixed white and red 
winter. 

No. 2 Winter. — No. 2 Winter to be sound, clean, and composed 
of the mixed white and red winter. 

No. 3 Winter. — No. 3 Winter shall comprise all winter wheat 
fit for warehousing, weighing not less than fifty-four pounds 
to the measured bushel, not sound enough or otherwise unfit 
for No. 2 of the other grades. 



WEIGHTS AND MEASUEES. 403 

Rejected Winter. — Rejected Winter fit for warehousing, but 
otherwise unfit for No. 3. 

Durum (Macaroni) Wheat. 

No. I Durum. — No. i Durum shall be bright, practically 
sound, and well cleaned, and be composed of Durum, com- 
monly known as Macaroni Wheat. 

No. 2 Durum. — No. 2 Durum must be reasonably sound and 
clean, and of good milling quality. It shall include all Durum 
Wheat that for any reason is not suitable for No. i Durum. 

No. 3 Durum. — No. 3 Durum shall include all wheat that is 
for any cause unfit for No. 2. 

No. 4 Durum. — No. 4 Durum Wheat shall include all wheat 
that is badly bleached and grown, or for any cause unfit for 
No. 3. 

Mixed Wheat. 

In case of any appreciable admixture of Durum, Western, 
Winter or Western White, and Red Wheat, with Minnesota 
Grades of Northern Spring Wheat, or with each other, it shall be 
graded according to the quality thereof, and classed as Nos. i, 
2, 3, etc., Mixed Wheat, with inspector's notation describing 
its character. 

II. CORN. 

No. I Yellotu Corn. — No. i Yellow Corn shall be sound, 
yellow dry, plump, and well cleaned. 

No. 2 Yellow Corn. — No. 2 Yellow Corn shall be three-fourths 
yellow, dry, reasonably clean, but not plump enough for No. i. 

No. 3 Yellow Corn. — No. 3 Yellow Corn shall be three-fourths 
yellow, reasonably dry, reasonably clean, but not sufficiently 
sound for No. 2. 

No. I White Corn. — No. i White Corn shall be sound, dry, 
plump, and well cleaned. 

No. 2 White Corn. — No. 2 White Corn shall be seven-eighths 
white, dry, and reasonably clean, but not plump enough for 
No. I. 

No. 3 White Corn. — No. 3 White Corn shall be seven-eighths 



404 GENERAL TOPICS. 

white, reasonably dry and reasonably clean, but not sufl&ciently 
sound for No. 2. 

No. I Corn. — No. i Corn shall be mixed corn of choice quality, 
sound, dry, and well cleaned. 

No. 2 Corn. — No. 2 Com shall be mixed corn, dry, reasonably 
clean, but not good enough for No. i. 

No. 3 Corn. — No. 3 Corn shall be mixed corn, reasonably 
dry and reasonably clean, but not sufficiently sound for No. 2. 

No. 4 Corn. — No. 4 Corn shall include all corn not w^: and no* 
in heating condition that is unfit for No. 3. 

III. OATS. 

No. I White Oats. — No. i White Oats shall be white, dry, 
sweet, sound, clean, and free from other grain, and shall weigh 
not less than thirty-two pounds to the measured bushel. 

No. 2 White Oats. — No. 2 White Oats shall be seven-eighths 
white, dry, sweet, sound, reasonably clean, and practically free 
from other grain, and shall weigh not less than thirty-one pounds 
to the measured bushel. 

No. 3 White Oats. — No. 3 White Oats shall be seven-eighths 
white, dry, sweet, sound, reasonably clean, and practically free 
from other grain, and shall weigh not less than twenty-nine 
pounds to the measured bushel. 

No. 4 White Oats. — Shall include all oats not sufficiently 
sound and clean for No. 3 White Oats, and shall weigh not less 
than twenty-five pounds to the measured bushel. 

Yellow Oats. — The grades of Nos. 1,2, and 3 Yellow Oats shall 
correspond with the grades of Nos. i, 2, and 3 White Oats, 
excepting that they shall be of the yellow varieties. 

No. I Oats. — No. I Oats shall be dry, sweet, sound, clean, 
and free from other grain, and shall weigh not less than thirty- 
two pounds to the measured bushel. 

No. 2 Oats. — No. 2 Oats shall be dry, sweet, sound, reasonably 
clean, and practically free from other grain, and shall weigh not 
less'than thirty-one pounds to the measured bushel. 

No. 3 Oats. — No. 3 Oats shall be all oats that are merchantable 
and warehousable and not fit for the higher grades. 



WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 405 

No. I Clipped White Oats.— No. i Clipped White Oats shall 
be white, dry, sweet, sound, clean, and free from other grain, and 
shall weigh not less than forty pounds to the measured bushel. 

No. 2 Clipped White Oats.— No. 2 Clipped White Oats shall 
be seven-eighths white, dry, sweet, sound, reasonably clean, and 
practically free from other grain, and shall weigh not less than 
thirty-eight pounds to the measured bushel. 

No. 3 Clipped White Oats.— No. 3 Clipped White Oats shall 
be seven-eighths white, dry, sweet, sound, reasonably clean, and 
practically free from other grain, and shall weigh not less than 
thirty-six pounds to the measured bushel. 

IV. RYE. 

No. I Rye. — No. i Rye shall be sound, plump, and well cleaned, 
and shall weigh not less than fifty-six pounds to the measured 
bushel. 

No. 2 Rye. — No. 2 Rye shall be sound, reasonably clean, 
and reasonably free from other grain, and shall weigh not less 
than fifty-four pounds to the measured bushel. 

No. 3 Rye. — All rye slightly damaged, slightly musty, or from 
any other cause unfit for No. 2 shall be graded as No. 3. 

V. BARLEY. 

No. I Barley. — No. i Barley shall be plump, bright, clean, 
and free from other grain, and shall weigh not less than forty- 
eight pounds to the measured bushel. 

No. 2 Barley. — No. 2 Barley shall be sound and of healthy 
color, not plump enough for No. i, reasonably clean, and reason- 
ably free from other grain, and shall weigh not less than forty-six 
pounds to the measured bushel. 

No. 3 Barley. — No. 3 Barley shall include all slightly shrunken 
and otherwise slightly damaged barley not good enough for No. 
2, and shall weigh not less than forty-four pounds to the measured 
bushel. 

No. 4 Barley. — No. 4 Barley shall include all barley fit for 
malting purposes not good enough for No. 3. 

No. I Feed Barley. — No. i Feed Barley must test not less than 



406 GENERAL TOPICS. 

forty pounds to the measured bushel, and be reasonably sound 
and reasonably clean. 

No. 2 Feed Barley. — No. 2 Feed Barley shall include all barley 
which is for any cause unfit for the grade of No. i Feed Barley. 

Chevalier Barley. — Nos. i, 2, and 3 Chevalier Barley shall 
conform in all respects to the grades of Nos. i, 2, and 3 Barley, 
except that they shall be of a Chevalier variety, grown in 
Montana, Oregon, and on the Pacific Coast. 

No Grade. — All Wheat, Barley, Oats, Rye, and Corn that is 
in a heating condition, too musty or too damp to be safe for ware- 
housing, or that is badly bin-burnt, badly damaged, exceedingly 
dirty, or otherwise unfit for store, shall be classed as No Grade 
with inspector's notation as to quality and condition. 

VI. FLAXSEED. 

All flaxseed inspected shall be classed according to quality 
and conditions as follows: 

No. I Northwestern Flaxseed. — Flaxseed to grade No. i 
Northwestern shall be mature, sound, dry, and sweet. It shall 
be northern grown. The maximum quantity of field, stack, 
storage, or other damaged seed intermixed shall not exceed 
twelve and one-half (12 J) per cent. The minimum weight shall 
be fifty-one (51) pounds to the measured bushel of commercially 
pure seed. 

No. I Flaxseed. — No. i Flaxseed shall be northern grown, 
sound, dry, and free from mustiness, and carrying not more 
than twenty-five (25) per cent of immature or field, stack, storage, 
or other damaged flaxseed, and weighing not less than fifty (50) 
pounds to the measured bushel of commercially pure seed. 

No. 2 Flaxseed. — Flaxseed that is bin-burnt, immature, field 
damaged, or musty, and yet not to a degree to be unfit for storage, 
and having a test weight of not less than forty-seven (47) pounds 
to the bushel of commercially pure seed shall be No. 2 Flaxseed. 

No Grade Flaxseed. — Flaxseed that is damp, warm, moldy, 
very musty, or otherwise unfit for storage, or having a weight of 
less than forty-seven (47) pounds to the measured bushel of 
commercially pure seed shall be No Grade. 



WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 406a 

GRADES OF HAY AND STRAW. 

(National Hay Association, 1902.) 

A. Hay. 

Choice Timothy Hay. — Shall be timothy not mixed with over 
one-twentieth other grasses, properly cured, bright, natural 
color, sound, and well baled. 

No. I. Timothy Hay. — Shall be timothy not more than one- 
eighth mixed with clover or other tame grasses, properly cured, 
good color, sound, and well baled. 

No. 2, Timothy Hay. — Shall be timothy not good enough for 
No. I, not over one-fourth mixed with clover or tame grasses, 
fair color, sound and well baled. 

No. 3, Timothy Hay. — Shall include all hay not good enough 
for other grades, sound, and well baled. 

No. I , Clover-mixed Hay. — Shall be timothy and clover mixed, 
with at least one -half timothy, good color, sound, and well baled. 

No. 2, Clover-mixed Hay. — Shall be timothy and clover mixed, 
with at least one -third timothy, reasonably sound, and well 
baled. 

No. I, Clover Hay. — Shall be medium clover, not over one- 
twentieth other grasses, properly cured, sound, and well baled. 

No. 2, Clover Hay. — Shall be clover, sound, well baled, not 
good enough for No. i. 

No Grade Hay. — Shall include all hay badly cured, threshed, 
badly stained, or otherwise unsound. 

Choice Prairie Hay. — Shall be upland hay, of bright color, 
well cured, sweet, sound, and reasonably free from weedc. 

No. I, Prairie Hay. — Shall be upland, and may contain one- 
quarter midland of good color, well cured, sweet, sound, and 
reasonably free from weeds. 

No. 2, Prairie Hay. — Shall be upland of fair color, or mid- 
land of good color, well cured, sweet, sound, and reasonably free 
from weeds. 

No. 3, Prairie Hay. — Shall be midland of fair color or slough 
of fair color, well cured, sound, and reasonably free from weeds. 



4066 GENERAL TOPICS. 

No. 4, Prairie Hay. — Shall include all hay not good enough 
for other grades, and not caked. 

No Grade Prairie Hay. — Shall include all hay not good enough 
for other grades. 

B. Straw. 

No. I, Straight Rye Straw. — Shall be in large bales, clean, 
bright, long rye straw, pressed in bundles, sound, and well baled. 

No. 2, Straight Rye Straw. — Shall be in large bales, long rye 
straw, pressed in bundles, sound, and well baled, not good 
enough for No. i. 

No. I, Tangled Rye Straw. — Shall be reasonably clean rye 
straw, good color, sound, and well baled. 

No. 2, Tangled Rye Straw. — Shall be reasonably clean, may 
be some stained, but not good enough for No. i. 

No. I, Wheat Straw. — Shall be reasonably clean wheat straw, 
sound, and well baled. 

No. 2, Wheat Straw. — Shall be reasonably clean, may be some 
stained, but not good enough for No. i. 

No. I, Oat Straw. — Shall be reasonably clean oat straw, sound, 
and well baled. 

No. 2, Oat Straw. — Shall be reasonably clean, may be some 
stained, but not good enough for No. i. 



WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 



40^ 



SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF VARIOUS SUBSTANCE* 

(Trautwinh.) 



Aluminum 

Anthracite, i. 3-1. 84, usually 

" broken, of any size, loose 

(A ton, loose, averages from 40 to 43 cubic feet.) 
Ash, American white, dry 

'* " " perfectly dry 

Asphaltum, 1-1.8 

Boxwood, dry 

Brass (copper and zinc) cast, 7.8-8.4 

Bronze (copper 8 parts, tin i part, gun metal), 8.4- 
8.6 

Cement, English Portland 

Charcoal, of pines and oaks.... 

Cherry, perfectly dry 

Chestnut, perfectly dry 

Coal, bituminous 1.2-1.5 

broken, of any size, loose 

(A ton occupies from 43 to 48 cubic feet.) 

Copper, cast, 8.6-8.8 

Cork 

Coke, loose, of good coal 

(A ton occupies 80 to 97 cubic feet.) 

Elm , perfectly dry 

Fat 

Glass, 2.5-3.45 

Gold, cast, pure 

Gravel, about the same as sand, which see. 

Hemlock, perfectly dry 

Hickory, perfectly dry 

Ice, .917-.922 

India rubber 

Iron, cast, 6.9-7,4, » 

Lard 

Lead, 11.38-11.47 

Lime, quick 

" " ground loose, ^er struck bu. 62-72 lbs.. 
Limestone and marbles. 

Mahogany, S;:anish, dry 

Maple, dry..'. 

Mercury, at 60* F 

Oak, white, perfectly dry, .66-.88 



Average 
Specific 
Gravity 



2.6 
1-5 

.61 
•752 
1-4 

.96 
8.1 

8.5 



.672 
.66 
1-35 



i-7 
•25 



.56 

•93 

19.258 



•77 



Average 
Weight OS 
I cu. foot, 
n Pound*. 



162, 
93-5 
52-56 

38. 
47- 
83.3 

60. 
504. 

529. 

8i-ioa 

15 "SO 

42- 
41. 
84. 
47-S« 

l<2. 

15-^ 
23-3!» 



35 • 
S8. 



tso^. 



15 


25 • 

53. 


.92 

•93 
7- 15 


446. 


11.38 
1-5 


59^3 
709.6 
95. 


2.6 


164.4 


•85 


53^ 



48. 



408 



GENERAL TOPICS. 



SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF VARIOUS SUBSTANCES.- 

Continued. 



Oak, red, black, etc. 

" live, .88-1.02... 

Oils, olive, whale... 



Peat 

Petroleum 

Pin(;, white, perfectly dry, >35-.45 

" vellotv. Northern, .48 to .62 

" " Southern, .64-. 80 , 

Platinum, 21-22.. 



Quartz common, pure, 2.64-2.67. 
Rosin 



Salt, coarse, per struck bu., Syracuse, N. Y., 56 lbs. 
Sand of pure quartz, dry and loose, per struck bu. 

ii2-i33lbs 

Sand ot pure quartz, wet 

Silver 

Snow, fresh fallen 

" moistened and compacted by rain 

Soils, common loam, perfectly dry, loose 

Soils, common loam, perfectly dry, moderately 

rammed 

Soils, common loam, slightly moist, loose ... 

" " " as a soft, flowing mud.. 

Spruce, perfectly dry 

Sulphur 

Steel, 7.7-7.9 

Sycamore, perfectly dry 



Tar , 

Tin, cast. 



Walnut, perfectly dry 

Water, pure rain or distilled, at 32* F. (barometer 

30 in-) o 

Water, pure rain or distilled, at 62" F. (barometer 



30 »n.) 

Water, pure rain or distilled water at 212° F. 

(barometer 30 in.) 

Water, sea, 1.026-1.030 

Wax, bees' 

Zinc, 6.8-7.2... 



Note. — Green timbers usually weigh from one fifth to nearly one half 
more than dry and ordinary bui^u .g timbers when tolerably seasoned ; 
about one sixth more than perfec ly dry. 



Average 
Specific 
Gravity. 


Average 

Weight of 

I cu. foot, 

in Pounds. 


•95 

.92 


32-45 

59-3 

57-3 


.40 
•55 
.72 

21-5 


25- 

34-3 
45 • 
1342. 


2.65 


1^5 


I.I 


68.6 




45- 


10.5 


90-106 

118-129 

655^ 

5-12 

15-20 

72-80 


•4 
2.0 
7.85 

.59 


90-100 
70-76 
104-112 

25^ 

125. 

490. 

37^ 


I.O 


62.4 


7-35 


459 • 


.6r 


38. 




62.417 


I.O 


62.35s 


1.028 
•97 


60.5 


7.0 


437-5 



WEIGHTS AKD MEASURES. 



4( 



jp o 







,.1111 



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o dv o o'vo'oo'oo m" o>o o. ■ 






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o o z- 

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410 



GEN"ERAL TOPICS. 



B. Countries with Fluctuating Currencies* 



Bolivia. . . . ._ 

Central America 

China 


Silver 
vSilver 

Silver 


Colombia 

Mexico . . 


Silver 
Silver 






Tripoli 


Silver 



Boliviano ( = ioo centavos) 

Peso 

Shanghai tael 

Haikwan tael (customs) 

Peso 

Dollar (peso)( •= too centavos) 

Kran 

Mahbub ( = 20 piasters) 



about 
$0.38 
.38 
.56 
.63 
.38 
.41 
.07 
.44 



MONEY CONVERSION TABLE. 









^ 



















'in 




^ 












•o 




u 






^ 


^ 




a 




u 






c 
'c5 


c 




u 




C 
3 


.2 




•n 


S 




J3 




S3 

Oc/3 


to 




c ^ 
^0 





2^' 

c 







< 

& 






^ 


S 


fc- 


fc 





tS 





1 


% 4-87 


% 0.24 


$ 0.19 


$ 0.40 


$ 0.52 


S 0.27 


$ 0.20 


2 


9-73 


.48 


• 39 


.80 


1 03 


•"4 


.41 


3 


14.60 


•7' 


-58 


1. 21 


1-55 


.80 


.61 


4 


19.47 


•gs 


• 77 


1. 61 


2.06 


1.07 


.81 


5 


24-33 


1.19 


•97 


2.01 


2.58 


1-34 


1.02 


6 


29.20 


1-43 


1.16 


2.41 


3.09 


1.61 


1.22 


7 


34-07 


1.67 


1-35 


2.81 


3.61 


1.88 


1.42 


8 


38.93 


1.90 


1.54 


3.22 


4.12 


2. 14 


1.62 


9 


43.80 


2.14 


1.74 


3-62 


4.64 


2.41 


1.33 


10 


48.67 


=3.38 


1.9^ 


4.02 


5-1:=^ 


2.68 


2.03 


20 


97-33 


4.76 


3.86 


8.04 


10.30 


5-36 


4.06 


30 


146.00 


7.14 


5-79 


12.06 


15-45 


8.04 


6.09 


40 


194.66 


9-52 


7.72 


16.08 


20.60 


10.72 


8.12 


50 


243-33 


11.90 


9-65 


20.10 


25.75 


13-40 


10.15 


100 


486.65 


23.80 


19.30 


40.20 


51 -.50 


26.80 


20.30 



STATISTICAL TABLES. 



411 



IV. STATISTICAL TABLES. 

AREA AND POPULATION OF THE UNITED 
STATES, 1900. (Twelfth Census.) 



States. 


Land 

Area, 

Sq. Mi. 


Popula- 
tion. 


States. 


Land 
Area, 
Sq. Mi. 


Popula- 
tion. 


Alabama 

Arizona 

Arkansas 

California 

Colorado 

Connecticut. . . 

Delaware 

Dist. of Colum. 

Florida 

Georgia 

Idaho 

Illinois 

Indiana 

Indian Ter. . . . 
Iowa . 


51,540 

112,920 

53,045 

156,172 

103,645 

4.845 

i,q6o 

60 

54,240 

58,980 

84,290 

56,000 

35,910 

31,000 

55,47 5 

81,700 

40,000 

45,420 

29,895 

9,860 

8,040 

57,430 

79,205 

46,340 

68,735 

145,310 

76,840 

109,740 


1,828,697 

122,931 

1,31 1,564 

1,485,053 

539,700 

908,420 

184.735 

278,718 

528,542 

2,216,331 

161,772 

4,821,550 

2,516,462 

392,060 

2,231,853 

1,470,495 

2,147,174 

1,381,625 

694,466 

1,188,044 

2,805,346 

2,420,982 

1,751,394 

1,551,270 

3,106,665 

243,329 

1,066,300 

42,335 


New Hamp. . 
New Jersey. . 
New Mexico . 
New York. . . 
N. Carolina .. 
N. Dakota. .. 

Ohio 

Oklahoma. . . 

Oregon 

Penna 

Rhode Island 
S. Carolina.. . 
S. Dakota. . . 
Tennessee. . . 

Texas 

Utah 

Vermont. . . . 

Virginia 

Washington.. 
W. Virginia . 
Wisconsin. . . 
Wyoming. . . . 

Total 

Alaska 

Hawaii 

Porto Rico. . . 


9,005 

7,525 
122,460 
47,620 
48,580 
70,195 
40,760 
38,830 
94,560 
44,985 

1,053 
30,170 
76,850 
41,750 
262,290 
82,190 

9,135 
40,125 
66,880 
24,645 
54,450 
97,5 7 5 


4x1,588 
1,883,669 

195,310 
7,268,894 
1,893,810 

319,146 
4,157,545 

398,331 

413,536 
6,302,11s 

428,556 
1,340,316 

401,570 
2,020,616 
3,048,710 

276,749 

343,641 
1,854,184 

518,103 

958,800 

2,069,042 

92,531 


Kansas 

Kentucky. . . . 

Louisiana 

Maine 

Maryland 

Massachusetts 

Michigan 

Minnesota. . . . 
Mississippi. . .. 

Missouri 

Montana 

Nebraska 

Nevada 


2,970,230 

*5oo,884 

*6,449 

3,606 


75,994,575 

63,592 
154,001 
953,243 



* Land and water area. 



AREA AND POPULATION OF CANADA, 1901. 



Provinces 

and 
Districts. 


Land 

Area, 

Sq. Mi. 


Popula- 
tion. 


Provinces 

and 
Districts. 


Land 
Area, 
Sq. Mi. 


Popula- 
tion. 


Ontario 

Quebec 

Nova Scotia . . 


220,508 

341,756 

21,068 

27,911 

64,327 


2,182,947 

1,648,898 

459,574 

331,120 

255,211 


Brit. Colum. . 
Pr. Ed. Island 
TheTerrit's.. 

Total. .. . 


370,191 

2,184 

2,571,873 


178,657 
103,259 
211,649 


N'wBrunswick 
Manitoba 


3,619,819 


5,371,315 



412 



GENERAL TOPICS. 



tf ^ 



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2 


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rooo OO lo w H lo 



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^1, 



STATISTICAL TABLES. 



413 



AVERAGE AND ACTUAL. DATE OF LAST AND 
FIRST KILLING FROST. 

(U. S. Weather Bureau.) 



State. 



Locality, 



Alabama 

Arkansas. .. . 

Colorado 

Connecticut 

Dist. of Col.... 
Florida 

Georgia 

Illinois 

n 

Indiana 

Iowa 

Kansas 

Kentucky 

Louisiana 

Maine.. . 

Maryland .. .. 
Massachusetts . 
Michigan 

Minnesota 

Mississippi 

Missouri 

Nebraska 

New Jersey . . 

New Mexico 

New York 

North Carolina 



Spring. 



Mobile 

Montgomery 
Little Rock.. 
Fort Smith.. 

Denver 

New Haven.. 
Washington. 
Cedar Key . 
Jacksonville 

Pensacola 

Atlanta 

Augusta... . 

Savannah 

Cairo 

Chicago 

Springfield.. . 
Indianapolis. 
Des Moines. . 

Dubuque 

Keokuk 

Dodge City. . 
Leavenworth 
Louisville . .. 
New Orleans. 
Shreveport., . 
Portsmouth . 
Baltimore . . . 

Boston 

Detroit 

Grand Haven 
Marquette. . . 

St. Paul 

Duluth 

Moorhead . . . 
Vicksburg.. 

St. Louis 

Omaha 

North Platte. 
Atlantic City 

Cape May 

Santa Fe 

Albany 

Buffalo 

New York 

Oswego 

Rochester 

Charlotte. ... 
Hatteras 



Average. Last. 

I 



Feb. 24 
Mar. 10 
Mar. 21 
Mar. 22 
May 25 
May 30 
April 4 
Feb. 4 
Feb. 24 
Mar. 7 
Mar. 25 
Mar. 17 
Mar. I 
Mar. 31 
April 23 
April 16 
April 17 
April 24 
April 27 
April 10 
April 22 
April 6 
April 8 
Feb. 2 
Feb. 26 
April 14 
April 6 



May 2 
May 30 
May 18 
May I 
May 6 
May 18 
Mar. 3 
Mar. 31 
April 15 
May I 
April 6 
April 6 
April 22 
April 21 
May 27 
April 14 
April 26 
May 3 
April I 
Feb. 27 



Fall. 



Earliest. 



April 6 


Nov. 2 


April 6 


Oct. 21 


April 14 


Oct. 8 


April 6 


Oct. 7 


June 6 


Sept. 10 


May 30 


Sept. 15 


April 20 


Oct. 4 


.Mar. 12 


Nov. 25 


Mar. 27 


Nov. 12 


Aprii 6 


Nov. 12 


May 21 


Oct. 16 


April 5 


Oct. 8 


Aprils 


Nov. 2 


Mays 


Oct. 2 


May 25 


Sept. 27 


May 25 


Sept. 13 


May 21 


Sept. 26 


May 31 


Sept. 12 


May 23 


Sept. 5 


May 2 


Sept. 18 


May 23 


Sept. 23 


May 21 


Sept. 13 


May 15 


Sept. -^o 


Mar. 27 


Nov. n 


Mar. 31 


Oct. 13 


Mays 


Sept. 7 


May 3 


Oct. 6 


May 17 


Sept. 30 


May 28 


Sept. 23 


May 28 


Aug. 21 


June II 


Aug. 22 


May 25 


Sept. I 


June 8 


Sept. 13 


June s 


Aug. 25 


April 22 


Oct. 19 


May 2 


Oct. 14 




Sept. 20 
Sept. 10 




April 29 


Oct. 4 


May 3 


Oct. 29 


May 22 


Sept. 19 


M;iy 22 


Oct. 15 


May 29 


Sept. 21 


April 25 


Oct. IS 


May 29 


Sept. 26 


May 29 


Sept. 26 


May 3 


Oct. 8 


April 5 


Nov. 22 



414 



GEN"ERAL TOPICS. 



DATE OF last: AND FIRST RILLING FROST— 

Continued. 



State. 



North Carolina 
North Dakota . 
Ohio '. 

Oklahoma 

Pennsylvania . 

South Carolina, 
South Dakota.. 

Tennessee. ... 
Texas . . . . , 

Virginia 

Wisconsin 



Locality. 



Manteo 

Wilmington. . 

Bismarck 

St. Vincent . . 

Cincinnati 

Cleveland.. . 

Columbus 

Sandusky 

Toledo 

Fort'Sill 

Erie 

Philadelphia 
Pittsburg. ... 
Charleston . 
Dead wood. . . 

Huron 

Yankton 

Chattanooga. 
Knoxville. . . . 

Memphis 

Nashville. . . . 
Abilene . . . . 
Brownsville. . 

El Paso 

Galveston... 

Palestine 

Lynchburg . . 

Norfolk 

La Crosse 

Milwaukee . . 



Spring. 



Average. 



Mar. 14 
Mar. 15 



April 15 
April 26 
April 18 
April 9 
April 24 
Mar. 15 
April 25 
April 5 
April 27 
Feb. 24 
May II 
May 14 
April 28 
Mar. 23 
April 6 
Mar. 24 
Mar. 31 
Mar. 14 
Jan. 24 
Mar. 27 
Feb. 2 



April II 
Mar. 26 
May I 

April 30 



Last. 



April ig 
April 20 
June 6 
June 8 
May 22 
June 6 
May 17 
May 23 
May 23 
April 13 
May 29 
April 29 
May 22 
April 2 
May 31 
June 22 
May 23 
Ap il 24 
April 25 
April 21 
May 24 
Mar. 29 
Mar. I 
April 22 
Mar. 18 
Mar. 30 
Maj^ 7 
April 26 
May 23 
May 28 



Fall. 



Earliest. 



Oct. 16 
Oct. 13 

Aug. 4 
Sept. 30 
Sept. 24 
Sept 29 
Oct. 8 
Sept. 9 
Oct. I 
Sept. 16 
Oct. 2 
Sept. 25 
Nov. 8 
Sept. 7 
Sept. 3 
Sept. 13 
Sept. 30 
Oct. 8 
Oct. 2 
Oct. 8 
Oct. ■zz 
Dec. 5 
Oct. 24 
Nov. 18 
Nov. 10 
Oct. 3 
Oct. 10 
Sept. 21 
Sept. 17 



STATISTICAL TABLES. 



415 



TfOO •* t>» 1 



'J^JOJ, vd lA lo o 00 r^ 

m -^ ir, U-, ir^ rt 



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ro fo io>C IT) •<^ 



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416 GENERAL TOPICS. 

METEOROLOGICAL. DATA FOR CANADA. 





Normal Mean Temperature of the Air. 


Province or City. 


Monthly Temperature. 


Mean for the 




Lowest. 


Highest. 


Year. 


Ontario 

Quebec 

New Brunswick 

Nova Scotia 

Prince Edward Island 


19.3° F. 

13-5 
16. 1 
21.2 
14.7 
0.6 
22.8 
22.9 
16.8 
18.4 
22.9 


69.8° F. 

70.2 

62.8 

63.3 

643 

65-9 

72.2 

67.4 

72.2 

itl 


43-8° F. 

42.6 

39-9 

41-7 

40-5 

32.6 

48.1 

44.1 

44-3 

40.3 

431 


Manitoba 


Toronto 

Montreal 


St. John, N. B 


Halifax, N S 





Normal rain/all in inches per year : Toronto 29.42, Windsox 23.78, 
Peterborough 20.55, Montreal 27.26, Quebec 19.26, St. John 33.27, Halifax 
43.08, Glace Bay 55 49, Sydney 49.42, Winnipeg 16.83, Spence's Bridge 3.88. 



COMPARISON OF LEADING INDUSTRIES IN THE 
UNITED STATES. (U. S. Census of 1890, in Round Numbers.) 



Agriculture ; 

Forest products, total.. ... 
Forest industries, enu- 
merated 

Forest products, not enu- 
merated (estimated) ... 
Manufactures using wood 

Mineral products, total 

Coal 

Gold and silver 

Iron and steel 

Manufactures of iron and 

steel 

Leather 

Leather manufactures 

Woolen " 

Cotton " 



iSo 



Millions. 

15,982 



562 



343 
486 
414 



297 
354 



Thousands. 

8,286 



348 



300 
57 
176 



186 
219 
222 





u 








rt 


!> 


S Cfl 


tm 


Raw 
ria 




Millions. 


Millions. 


102 


245 


294 


442 


109 




40 




96 


327 


32 


79 


25 


136 


88 


153 


77 


203 


70 


155 



o 

ll 

cu 

Millions. 
2,460 
1,044 

446 

598 
907 
610 
160 
99 
479 

131 
178 

289 
338 
268 



STATISTICAL TABLES. 



41' 



ARKAS OF APPROPRIATED, VACANT, AND RE- 
SERVED LANDS IN THE UNITED STATES, 1898. 

(U. S. Dept. Agr.) 



States and 
Territories. 


Total Area. 


Unap- 
prop. 
and Un- 
reserved. 


Reserved 


Total 
Govern- 
ment 
Land. 


Appropri- 
ated. 


Alabama . . . 


acres. 
32,658,000 
72,792,500 
33,543,500 
99,361,083 
66,390,650 
35,264,500 
52,830,200 
19,575,040 
52,383,000 
28,863,188 
36,819,000 
51,689,444 
29,685,000 
43,796,000 
95,259,720 
49,137,339 
70,336,500 
78,197,005 
44,902,987 
24,753-663 
61,626,218 
48,158,555 
52,580,000 
42,684,084 
35,275.000 
62,433.000 
579.024,029 


per cent. 

1 .60 
71.07 
11.02 
42.72 
59.81 

4-98 
83.68 

2.02 

2.62 

1-37 

11.07 

1.29 

1.02 

75.13 
21.47 

87-33 
69.76 
45.82 
28.31 
58-25 
20.55 
83-43 
3^-49 
1.17 

78-54 


per cent. 

.26 

21.12 

.01 

16.35 

9-38 

.06 

3.67 

100.00 

1.89 

5-II 

.24 

9.64 


per cent. 

1.86 
92.16 
11-03 
59-07 
69.19 
5-04 
87-35 
100.00 

3-91 

U] 

20.71 

1.29 

1.02 

87.16 

21.61 

95-74 

80.45 

52.61 

57-42 

67.12 

49.64 

93-80 

57-57 

2.21 

91.70 

.04 

37-85 


per cent. 
98.14 
7.81 
88.97 
40-93 
30.81 
94.96 
12.65 




Arkansas 


California 


Colorado. 

Florida .... 




Indian Territory... 




96.09 
92.27 
98.39 

Wi 

98.98 
12.84 
78.39 
4.26 

19-55 
47-39 
42.58 
32.88 
50.36 

6.20 
42-43 
97-79 

8.30 
99.96 




Michigan .... 


Minnesota 

Mississippi 


12.03 
.14 

8.51 
10.69 

6,79 
29.11 

8.87 
23.09 
10.37 
26.08 

1.04 

13.16 

.04 

7.64 


Montana 

Nebraska 




New Mexico . . 

North Dakota 

Oklahoma 


South Dakota 

Utah 

Washington 




Other States 






Total 


1,900,019,201 


30.21 


62.15 





FAR3IING POPULATION OF THE UNITED 
STATES, 1880, 1890, AND 1900. 





Tenth 
Census. 


Eleventh 
Census. 


Twelfth 
Census. 




50,152,866 

7,713,875 
603,202 
3,423,815 
1,866,481 
3,784,726 


62,622,250 

8,565,926 
944,333 
4,220,812 
3,326,122 
5,678,468 


75,994.573 

10,381,76s 
1,258,730 
5,580,657 
4,766,964 
7,085,002 


Total engaged in agriculture. . . 


Domestic and personal service 

Trade and transportation 

Mfg. and mechan. pursuits 


All occupations. 


17,392,000 
44-3 


22,735,661 

37-7 


29,074,1 1 7 


Engaged in agriculture, per 
cent 


35 • 7 







418 



GENERAL TOPICS. 



NUMBER AND CLASSIFICATION OF THE AGRI- 
CULTURAL. POPULATION, 10 YEARS OF AGE 

AND OVER. 

(Twelfth Census.) 



Occupation. 


Male. 


Female. 


Total. 




3,747.668 

9,083 

5,367,169 

58,928 

71,920 

83,056 

24,456 

35,962 

5,287 


663,209 
892 

307,706 
2,860 
100 
1,932 
281 
113 
243 


4,410,877 
10,875 

5,674,875 
61,788 
72,020 
84,988 
24,737 
36,075 
5,53c 




Farmers, planters, and overseers 

Gardeners, florists, nurserymen, etc . . . 


Stock-raisers, herders, and drovers. . . . 
Turpentine farmers and laborers 


Other agricultural pursuits 




Total engaged in agriculture 


9,404,429 


977,336 


10 381,765 



NUMBER OF FARMS IN THE UNITED STATES 
AND THEIR VALUE. 

(Twelfth Census.) 



States. 


No. of 
Farms. 


Value. 


States. 


No. of 
Farms. 


Value. 


Alabama. . . . 


223,220 


$179,399,882 


Nevada 


2,184 


$28,673,835 


Arizona 


5,809 


29,993,847 


N. Hamp. . . . 


29,324 


85,842,096 


Arkansas. . . . 


178,694 


181,416,001 


New Jersey. . 


34,650 


189,533,660 


California. . . . 


72,542 


796,527.955 


New Mexico . 


12,311 


53,767,824 


Colorado. . . . 


24,700 


161,045,101 


New York. . . 


226,720 


1,069,723,895 


Connecticut . 


26,948 


113,305,580 


N. Carolina. . 


224,637 


233,834,693 


Delaware. . . . 


9,687 


40,697,654 


N. Dakota. .. 


45,332 


255,260,751 


Dist.of Col. .. 


269 


11,535,376 


Ohio 


276,719 


1,198,923,946 


Florida 


40,814 


53,929,064 


Oklahoma. . . 


62,495 


185,343,818 


Georgia 


224,691 


228,374,637 


Oregon 


35,837 


172,761.287 


Idaho 


17,471 


67,271,202 


Penna 


224,248 


1,051,629,173 


Illinois 


264,151 


2,004,316,897 


Rhode Island 


5,498 


26,989.189 


Indiana 


221,897 


978,616,471 


S. Carolina. . . 


155,355 


153,591,159 


Indian Ter. . . 


45,505 


92,181,615 


S. Dakota. . . 


52,622 


297,525,302 


Iowa 


228,622 


1,834,345,546 


Tennessee. . , 


224,623 


341,202,025 


Kansas 


173,098 


864,100,286 


Texas 


352,190 


962,476,273 


Kentucky. . . 


234,667 


471,045,856 


Utah 


19,387 


75,175,141 


Louisiana. . . . 


115,969 


198,536,906 


Vermont. . . . 


33,104 


108,451.427 


Maine 


59,299 


122,410,904 


Virginia 


167,886 


323,515,977 


Maryland. . . . 


46,012 


204,645,407 


Washington. . 


33,202 


144,040,547 


Mas'chusetts. 


37,715 


182,646,704 


W. Virginia. 


92,874 


203,907,349 


Michigan. . . . 


203,261 


690,355,734 


Wisconsin. . . 


169,795 


811,712.319 


Minnesota. . . 


154,659 


788,684.642 


Wyoming. . . . 


6.095 


67,477,407 


Mississippi. . . 


220,803 


204.221,027 









Missouri 


284,886 


1,033,121.897 


Total 


5,737,372 


$20,439,901,164 


Montana. . . . 


13.370 


117.859,823 


Alaska 


12 


15,086 


Nebraska. . .. 


121,525 


747,950,057 


Hawaii 


2,273 


74,084,988 



STATISTICAL TABLES. 



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Kentucky. . 



STATISTICAL TABLES. 



421 



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t^iO ^ r^ lO lO (N vo triO 0\M 0»IOIOU-)P) ro ■*\0 w O 00 M 

'tf---^0><N'O o f^r^ OOO 00 o.r^t^<N "^OfOM_r-.o_ 0_oo 
0<5 iTJiOM r^OvMH rooo 00 N r^ o 00 ^^ r}- lovo moO •o N 

00v00>OHfOtN00-*w>OlN CKvO ^O O ^ '+00 ro N 00 <N M 
O fOO 00 00 0> O O 00 t^ t^O O' t^ U-, r<) t^vo lo w Tj-00 o o 

OO^NNM MD'OpT O'rfM (MMH-OrO 



w <N O •* 0> "000 Ov O t^ Tf O 00 



T^ ro\o o -+ o 'O 

Tj-vo T)- t fO O t^ 
1/^00 1-1 O. OvO <-'5 



ro 0'<i 0>0 >-H CO in 



rOOO 00 
>0\0 in 



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P'o 



H&EwoS^^2^wtioT;t;StHA^cn-g^2j2S'"c! 
rt S fe^^ g £ S g^ rt.t^ o g 2 o^;S g g-^ ?5 cj S 



S 



eg (u <u cs^ 5 iJ 4; 53 tu =5.!^ o § oj^^-^ b dj'w SKt','^ 



STATISTICAL TABLES. 



423 



p»0>ot)-(NNhO»ioOw<NO t^O O O On ■* <N r- fO uoco •* I OO 



00>Of^P<vOfOwOvNwt^i 
1/1 Tj- lO w Tj- lo loO O O t^ i^ ' 
00 ro ro M Tj-vO ' 



CO ■"^ M f^ CO r^ i~0 
m" ro a » rooo'vo' 



lOTtrfOvu-jrOTtOvw r- 
Ov lo w t^ OiO -t O •* O 
cs 0»0 fO 0\ r^ O^ fN (H fo 



fO ■^ lo w o> •*00 '+O>'to^ <s in O^ ir, <y. rj- irioo • 

r^MOO ^OC^|^M o 0> tJ-\0 to I^ O 00 >OC0 ^C vO O I 



i n 



w ro 0> t^ M c^ IT) TtO 
(N Tj-rOCKIN OO ON 
OsQlOl/IMlOMOt^ 
rOfOM rorow lofOM 



■* lOCO MO M ro ■^ O-OO O Ov M ro IT) 



OvlONlNTtlOMMM'^vOOOOOI^ .<N<Nr-«0<30vO 
OfOMOOvTJ-rot^rDOvOvMOMMOOCNO'^OOi-iO 



M ■'to 'tOvOOOO N O M 

fOOO MVOOO i/iroM LOO 

O O J^O r^oo O 00 t^O 

pT m" m" n" m" ro N m 



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I vo O t^O t^vO lo tooo ■* OOO O ^ 
IMfOt-iO COMCOPOfOlOfO 



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t^roO ■«tN rOt^iN (SOO OvI^OO "lOO 
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>0 O "1" O t^O O M O r^OO ro lO ro rO M 

O* "^ "To" OvO 0"^ ■^o' lo M O 00* o 

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VOMNMMOMOlOMro "to O M i-i 
cTo'o" i-Tvo" H ro tC looo" ro N M 00 



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M \0 OvO fjOO M O 

^'^■^UOlOO'tTt 

■ O roo 00 -r)- IN 00 O 



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rorOM ■^Ot^nOOO 

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w M t^ O r^ Tt\0 O 00 r^ 
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lo o 00 OCO O fO o 
f^oo t- M ■* (N o r}- 



lO O lO N OOO t^ M O "lO rO >0 OCO N t^OO lOOO rO lOO 00 
MOOt^lOOi-i'^IN OOO r^ O M M loOO ro w rO O t^ O O 
►H M 00 to -t O ■* r^O 00 OOO COM l^t^t^ OOO w M O M M 



fO lOOO ro •'t 'too 00 O O O r^ M 
t^ M w o ■^OO O M r^O CO OOO 
P) Tt M ro 0_^ <N ■^ 0_ >O00_^ r^ N 
O O "? m" cT ui 



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ro ro lOO t^OO O O »0 

PO \0 M M PI M OO M 



0-^'*N«P)M(N TtOO P) O <N r^ ro 
O O O P< ■* M O ^O PI O P) O fO M 
O O M t^ r- 0_0__ rO00__ O; "2 "^ O 
't 6v m" po m" O O 



TfO P< >oO r^ 
ro ■* t^ lO O 00 
PI o r~co o ro 



lO O O PO rOCO >0 PI OOO O PO r^OO O^J-rOO'^PO'tPI ^OO 

O O PI O'^ ro M to PI OCO PI PI 00 O O O OCO tyj m O rO PI 

'^. '^ ■* 9. ° "2 "2°°. ^ "t ° ". " " '-''^ °° "^^^ " "^^ "^ "^ 
c«^ p^ O ■* CO Ttoo MPiOPio'toi"" 




424 



GENEEAL TOPICS. 



AVERA^GE AGRICULTURAL, WAGES IN THE U. S. 
IN 1893-1895, INCLUSIVE. (U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.) 





Per Month for 
Season or Year. 


Per Day in 
Harvest. 


Per Day other 
than Harvest. 


Years. 


With 
Board. 


Without 
Board. 


With 
Board. 


Without 
Board. 


With 
Board. 


Without 
Board: 


1893 

1894 

189s 


$13.29 
12.16 
12.02 


$19.10 
17-74 
17.69 


$1 .03 
•93 
.92 


$1.24 

1. 13 

1. 14 


$0.69 
.63 
.62 


$0.89 
.81 
.8r 



INDUSTRY GROUPS IN THE UNITED STATES. 

(Twelfth Census.) 



Number of 
Establish- 
ments. 



Capital. 



Av. Number 
of Wage 
Earners. 



Food and kindred prod'ots 

Textiles 

Iron and steel and their 
products 

Lumber and its manuf'res. 

Leather and its finished 
products 

Paper and printing 

Liquors and beverages. . . 

Chemicals and allied pr'cts 

Clay, glass, and stone pr'ts 

Metals and metal prod'cts 
other than iron and steel 

Tobacco 

Vehicles for land transpor- 
tation 

Shipbuilding 

Miscellaneous industries . 

Hand trades 



61,266 
30,048 

13,896 
47,054 

16,989 

26,747 

7,861 

5-443 

14,809 

16,305 
15,252 

10,112 

i,ii6 

29,479 

215,814 



$937,686,610 
1.366,604,058 

1,528,979,076 
945,934,565 

343,600,513 
557,610,887 
534,101,049 
498,282,219 
350,902,367 

410,646,057 
124,089,871 

396,671,441 

77,362,701 

1,348,920,721 

392,442,255 



311,717 
,029,910 

733,968 
546,872 

238,202 
297,551 
63,072 
101,489 
244,987 

190,757 
142,277 

316,157 

46,781 

483,273 

559,130 



Wages. 



Value of Products. 



Gross. 



Net. 



Food and kindred prod'cts 

Textiles 

Iron and steel and their 
products 

Lumber and its manuf'res. 

Leather and its finished 
products 

Paper and printing 

Liquors a.nd beverages. . . 

Chemicals and allied pr'ts. 

Clay, glass, and stone pr'ts 

Metals and metal products 
other than iron and steel 

Tobacco 

Vehicles for land transpor- 
tation 

Shipbuilding . . . 

Miscellaneous industries. . 

Hand trades 



$128,667,428 
341,734,399 

381,875,499 
212,124,780 

99,759,885 

140,092,453 

36,946,557 

43,850,282 

109,022,582 

96,749,051 
49,852,484 

164,559,022 

24,839,163 

202,746,162 

288,118,421 



2,273,880,874 
1,637,484,484 

1,793,490,908 
1,030,695,350 

583,731,046 
606,317,768 
425,504,167 
552,797,877 
293,564,235 

748,795,464 
283,076,546 

508,524,510 

74,578,158 

1,004,092,294 

1,183,615,478 



,750,811,817 
,081,961,248 

983,821,918 
547,227,860 

329,614,996 
419,798,101 
349,157,618 
372,538,857 
245,447,118 

371,154,446 
264,052,573 

250,622,377 

42,492,518 

638,191,538 

721,104,859 



STATISTIC A.L TABLES. 



425 



AREA, PRODUCTIOX, AND VALUE OF PRINCIPAL. 
CROPS IN THE UNITED STATES, 1905. 

(U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.) 











Av. 


Av. 


Av. 




Total Pro- 


Total Area 


Total Value 


Yield 


Farm 
Price 


Value 


Crop. 


duction. 


of Crop. 


of Crop. 


per 


per 










Acre. 


per 


Acre. 












Unit. 








Acres, 


Dollars. 




Cents. 


Dols. 


Ind.com.bu 


2,707,993,540 


94,011,369 


1,1 16,696,738 


28.8 


41 .2 


11.88 


Wheat, " 


692,979,489 


47,854,079 


518,372,727 


14-5 


74.8 


10.83 


Oats, 


953,216,197 


28,046,746 


277,047,537 


34 -o 


29.1 


0.88 


Barley, " 


136,651,020 


5 095,528 


55,047,166 


26.8 


40.3 


10.88 


Rye, 


28,485,952 


1.730,159 


17,414,138 


16.5 


61. 1 


10 .07 


B'kwheat," 


14,585,082 


760,118 


8,565,499 


19.2 


58.7 


II .27 


Potatoes, " 


260,741,294 


2,996,757 


160,821,080 


87.0 


61.7 


53.67 


Hay, tons . 


60,531,611 


39,361,960 


515,959,784 


r -54 


$8.52 


13-11 


Cotton, b's. 


10,575,017 


26,117,153 


556,833.818 


0.41 


I0.5 


20.53 


Tobacco, lbs 


633,033 719 


776,112 


53,519,068 


815.6 


8.5 


69.32 


Hops, 
Flaxseed, bu 


51,200,000* 
28,477,753 












2,534,836 


24,049,072 


II . 2 


84.4 


9.45 


Rice, 


13,606,989 


482,479 


12,955.748 


28.2 


95-2 


26.85 



THE PRINCIPAL, 



* Unofficial. 
CEREAL. PRODUCTS OF THE 



UNITED STATES. 



As Shown by 


the Census Returns, from 


1850 to 1900. 


Cen- 
sus 
of 


Indian 
Corn. 


Wheat. 


Oats. 


Barley. 


Rye. 


Buck- 
wheat. 


1850 
i860 
1870 
1880 
1890 

IQOO 


Bushels. 
592,071,104 

838,792,742 

760,944,549 
1,754,861,525 

2,112,327,547 
2.666,^74,370 


Bushels. 

100,485,944 
173,104,924 
287,745,626 
459^479.505 
468,373,968 
658,^^4,2^2 


Bushels. 

146,584,179 
172,643,185 
282,107,157 
407,858,999 
809,250,666 
943,78q,375 


Bushels. 

5,167.015 
15,825.898 
29,761,305 
44,113.495 
78,332,976 
119,634,877 


Bushels. 

14,188,813 
21,101,380 
16,018.795 

19,831,595 
28,421.398 
25,^68,625 


Bushels. 

8,956,912 
17,571,818 

9,821,721 
11,817,327 
12,110,349 
11,233.515 



PRODUCTION OF VARIOUS CROPS IN CANADA, 

1901, (Census of 1901.) 



Wheat 55.572,368 bu 

Barley 22,224,366 ' ' 

Oats 151,497,407 " 

Rye 2,316,793 " 

Peas and beans ... 13,210,270 " 

Buckwheat 4,547,159 " 

Com (maize) 25,875,919 " 

Potatoes 55,362,635 " 

Area of improved land in Canada, 1901 

" " " " under crop. . . . 

" " gardens and orchards 

" " pastures . . 



Turnips and other 

roots 76,075,642 bu. 



Grass and clover, 
Fruits, grapes, etc 

Hay 

Tobacco 

Hops 

Flaxseed 



288,275 

. 66,678,885 lbs. 

• 7 852,73itons. 

. 11,266,732 Ibss 

1,004,216 " 

172,222 bu 
30,166,033 acres. 
19.763.747 " 
478,223 " 
11,275,556 " 



426 



GENERAL TOPICS. 



AVERAGE COST PER ACRE OF RAISING WHEAT, 

CORN, AND COTTON IN THE UNITED STATES, 

1893.* 

(U. S. Department of Agriculture.) 



Rent of land 

Manure or fertilizers 

Preparing ground . 

Seed 

Sowing or planting. 

Cultivating 

Harvesting, gathering, or picking.. 

Thrashing 

Ginning and pressing 

Housing 

Repairing implements 

Marketing 

Other expenses 



Total $11.69 



Wheat. Corn. Coj.on, Couon, 



$2 



$3-03 

.86 
62 

42 



$2.{ 



I-3I 
3-37 

i'6s 

.42 

,64 



$15.42 



$2.36 
3-75 
3-65 
•38 
.46 
1-73 
517 



.42 

.gi 
•51 

$21.95 



AVERAGE rAR3I PRICE OF VARIOUS AGRICULTURAL 
PRODUCTS ON DEC. 1 IN EACH YEAR FR03I 1890 
TO 1905. 

(U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.) 



Crop. 



Com per bushel . 

Wheat 

Rye 

Oats 

Barley ' ' 

B'kwheat " 

Irish pota's" 

Hay per ton. . . . 

Cotton per lb. . . . 

Leaf tobacco, per 



890 189s 1900 



$ 

.506 
.838 
.629 
.424 
.648 
• 577 
•777 
•74 
.086 
.077 



$ 

.357 
.619 
.512 
.258 
.408 
.558 
■ 431 



[901 



$ 

0.605 

.624 

• 557 
•399 

• 452 
.563 
.767 



:902 



903 



$ I $ 
0.403 0.425 
.630 .695 
.508 .545 
•307 .341 
•450 .456 
.596 .607 
.614 
9.08 
.086 
.068 



.471 
9 .06 



.070 



904 



$ 

1. 441 
•924 
.688 
• 313 
.420 
.622 
•453 

;.72 
.102 
.081 



• 748 
.611 
. 291 

• 403 

• 587 
.617 
.852 
.105 
.085 



* Data for wheat and. com consolidated from returns from nearly 
30,000 leading farmers scattered, throughout the United States. The 
data for cotton were secured in 1897, and are the averages of return 
from over 3400 planters. 



STATISTICAL TABLES. 



427 



NUMBER AND VALUE OF FARM ANIMALS IN THE 
UNITED STATES, 1870-1900. (U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.) 



FamiAnimals 


Jan. I, 1870. 


Jan. T, 1S80. 


Jan. I, 1890. 


Jan. I, 1900. 


Horses, nu'ber 


8,248,800 


11,201 ,800 


14,213,837 


13,537,524 


value 


$671,319,461 


$613,296,611 


$978,516,562 


$603,969,442 


Mules, nu'ber 


1,179,500 


1,729,500 


2,332,027 


2,086,027 


value . 


$128,584,769 


$105,948,319 


$182,394,099 


$1 1 1,717,002 


Milch c*ws,No 


10,095,600 


I 2,027,000 


15,952,883 


16,292,360 


value ^ . 


$394,094,745 


$279,899,420 


$352,152,133 


$514,812,106 


Other cat.. No 


i5,388,soo 


21,231,000 


36,849,024 


27,610,054 


value . 


$346,926,440 


$341,761,154 


$560,625,137 


$689,486,260 


Sheep, nu'ber 


40,853,000 


40,765,900 


44,336,072 


41,883,06s 


value . 


$93,364,433 


$90,230,537 


$100,659,761 


$122,665,913 


Swine, nu'ber 


26,751,400 


34,034,100 


51,602,780 


37,o7-»,350 


value . 


$187,191,502 


$145,781,515 


$243,418,336 


$185,47-^,321 


Total value of 










farm anim's 


$1,822,327,377 


$1,576,917,556 


$2,418,766,028 


$2,228,123,134 



TALUES OF FARM PROPERTY AND PRODUCTS IN 
CANADA, 1901. 

(Census of 1901.) 



Farm property, 1901. 

Total value $1,787,102,630 

Land and buildings.. . 1,403,269,501 
Implements and ma- 
chinery 108,665,502 

Horses 118,279,418 

Milch cows 69,237,970 

Other homed cattle .. 54,197,341 

Sheep. 10,490,594 

Swine 16,445,702 

Poultry 5,723,890 

Bees 792,71 1 



Agric^iltural products, 1901. 

Total value $364,906,866 

Field crops 194,953,420 

Fruits and vegetables . . 12,994,900 
Nursery stock sold in 

year 469,501 

Live stock sold in year. 52,755,375 
Meats, etc., of animals 

slaughtered on farm . 22,951,527 

Dairy products 66,470,953 

Wool 1,887,064 

Eggs 10,286,828 

Honey and wax 356,816 

Maple sugar 1,780,482 



NUMBER OF FARM ANIMALS AND ANIMAL PRODUCTS 
CANADA, 1901. 

(Census of 1901.) 



IN 



Horses over 3 years old . . 1,304,910 

Horses under 3 years old . . 272,583 

Milch cows 2,408,677 

Other homed cattle 3,167,774 

Sheep 2,510,239 

Swine 17,922,658 

Poultry 189,986 

Hives of bees 2,353,828 



Cattle, killed or sold. . . . 1,110,209 

Sheep, killed or sold. .. . 1,342,288 

Swine, killed or sold. .. . 2,555,413 

Poultry, killed or sold-.. 7,063,597 

Butter, home made, lbs. 105,343,076 

Wool, lbs 10 657,597 

Honey, lbs 3,569,567 

Eggs, doz 84,132,802 



428 



GENERAL TOPICS. 



BREEDS AND NUMBER OF REGISTERED LIVE STOCK 
IN THE UNITED STATES, DEC. 31, 1906. 

(U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.) 



Breed. 



Cattle: Aberdeen-Angus 

Ayrshire 

Devon 

Dutch-belted 

Galloway 

Guernsey 

Hereford 

Holstein-Friesian 

Jersey 

Polled Durham 

Red Polled 

Shorthorn 

Sussex 

Swiss, Brown 

Horses: Cleveland Bay 

Clydesdale 

Coach, French 

' ' German 

" Oldenburg 

Draft, Belgian 

French 

Hackneyt 

Morgan t 

Percheron 

(Ohio) 

Saddle Horse, American 

Shetland Pony 

Shire 

Suffolk 

Thoroughbred 

Trotter, American 

Jacks and Jennies 

Sheep: Cheviot 

Cotswold 

Dorset Horn 

Hampshire Down 

Leicester 

Lincoln 

Merino (Delaine, Ohio.) . 
" ( " " ). . 

" ( " Pa.)t. . 
" ( " " )... 

(French) 

" (German) 

" (Spanish, Mich.). 
( " Ohio).. 
" ( " N. Y.). 
** ( " " ). 
" ( " Vt.). . . 
Oxford Down 



Number 
Male. 



38,188 

9,689 

8.084 

573 

16,620 

10,683 

ii2,78:> 

46,031 

71,907 

5,403 

14,601 

249,800 

78 

2,159 

1.236 

12,370 

130 

1,656 

260 

2,056 

9,000 

726 

5 021 

1,640 

928 

2,529 

2,300 

6,062 



Regis- 
tered 
Female. 



48,604 

20,883 

13,717 

1,265 

11,080 

19,889 

115,620 

95,037 

193,978 

6,460 

25,006 

391,600 

185 

3,150 

502 



4 

246 

23 

266 

5,000 

1,542 

2,880 

1,460 



3,549 
3,500 
2,148 



[59 

45,309 



42,5971 152,700 
i.oool 750 

10,700 

36,610 



1,395 

5.573 
3,538 
5.754 



3,703 
2,844 
5,437 
8,246 
9,401 
8,ooo| 14,300 
5,054 11,259 
6,8051 11,599 
34,07s 



162 

12,550 

16,691 

7,916 

1.275 



191 

37,700 
33,384 
11,912 

,500 



217,850 
32,798t 



Number Living. 



Male. Female. 



27,496 

3,500 
* 

8,370 

6,000 

45,000 

14,199 
* 

3,93 5 

5,500 

87,430 

50 

300 

1,050 

125 
1,500 

190 
2,05s 
* 

684 

3,765 

19,000 

.913 



750 
575 
14, 
1,000 
3,000 
2,972 
4 



6,900 



34.994 



6,480 
I 2 000 
6o,ooo 

31,756 

* 

4.84s 

10,500 

[76,220 

100 

1,500 

400 

* 

4 

225 

14 

265 

* 

1 416 
2,100 
12,000 
.. 94 
2,500 



500 
2,650 
) 

2,800 
9.oo» 
4,567 
5.900 



2,500 
1 ,500 
1.500 
* 

105 

400 

2,842 

280 



8,000 
3,000 
5,000 
* 

17s 
4,300 
8,035 
1,875 



No data. 



t Estimates for 1904. 



STATISTICAL TABLES. 



429 



BREEDS AND NUMBERS OF REGISTERED LIVE STOCK 
IN THE UNITED STATES— Continued. 



Breed. 



Sheep (Continued). 

Shropshire 

South Down 

Suffolk 

Hogs: Berkshire 

Cheshire 

Chester, White 

' ' Ohio Impr 

Duroc Jersey (Ind.). . . . 

" (111.) 

Hampshire (Thin Rind) 

Poland China (1 11.) 

" (Ind.).... 

" (Mo.) 

" " (Tenn.). . 

Tamworth t 

Yorkshire 



Number 
Male. 



Regis- 
tered 
Female. 



100,000 134,000 

19,933 

1013 

88,080 

5 



1.225 

5,665 

3,403 

8,026 

21,800 

294 

52,331 

32 000 

39,008 

691 

1,949 

2,86o| 



8,9 

9 000 

18,450 

55, 000 

540 

130,620 

72,000 

93,234 

1,030 

3,640 



Number Living. 



Male. Female. 



20,000 40.000 
10,200 
S50 
33,000 
2751 575 
600 2,000 
i,8oo| 6,200 
* * 

30,000 



155 

27,000 


387 

68,000 


10,000 


23,000 


2,000 
400 


18,000 
600 



1,200 

2,000| 3,200 



* No data. t Estimates for 1904. 



PURE-BRED CATTLE OF BREEDS USED FOR 
DAIRYING. (U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.) 

Estimates of numbers living in the United States, 1905, and values of same. 



Breeds. 



\yrshire 

8rown-Swiss . 

Devon 

Dutch Belted 
Guernsey. . . . 
Holstein-Frie- 
sian . . 



Num- 


Est. 


Av. 


ber 


No. 


Val. 


Regis- 


Liv- 


per 


tered. 


mg. 


Headt 


30,572 


* 


$100 


5,309 


1,800 


75 


21 ,801 


13,500 


75 


1,838 




200 


30,572 


18,000 


140 


14^,068 


45,955 


130 



Breeds. 



Jersey . . . . 
Polled Dur- 
ham .... 
Red Polled, 
t Shorthorn 



Num- 


Est. 


ber 


No. 


Regis- 


Liv' 


tered. 


mg. 


265,885 


* 


11,863 


8,780 


39,607 


16,000 


641,400 


263,650 



Av. 

Val. 

per 

Headt 



$100 

80 
ISO 
170 



* No data. t Figures published 1903- t Chiefly beef stock. 



430 



GENERAL TOPICS. 



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434 



GENERAL TOPICS. 



STATISTICS OF BUTTER, CHEESE, AND CON 
DENS ED- MILK FACTORIES IN THE UNITED 

STATES. 

(Twelfth Census.) 



Totals for the United States. 



Number of establishments reporting 

Capital employed, total dollars 

Land 

Buildings 

Machinery, tools, and implements. ... 

Cash and sundries. . . .' 

Employes average number 

Total wages paid dollars 

Materials used: 

Aggregate cost dollars 

For butter: 

Gathered cream pounds 

Milk " 

Total cost dollars 

For cheese: 

Milk pounds 

Cost dollars 

For condensed milk: 

Milk pounds 

Sugar 

Total cost dollars 

Products: 

Aggregate value dollars 

Butter made: 

Packed solid pounds 

Prints or rolls 

Total value dollars 

Cream sold gallons 

Value dollars 

Skim milk sold, fed, or returned to 

patrons pounds 

Value dollars 

All other creamery products 

Cheese, standard factory: 

Quantity pounds 

Value dollars 

Cheese, all other made: 

Quantity pounds 

Value dollars 

Whey sold pounds 

" otherwise used 

Total value dollars 

All other cheese-factory products " 
Condensed milk: 

Quantity pounds 

Value dollars 



Butter and 

Cheese 
Factories. 



9,242 

36,303,164 

1,818,519 

11,514,108 

13,827,667 

9,142,780 

12,799 

6,145,561 

108,841,200 

203,673,958 

8,514,806,634 

73,489,355 

2,741,898,1 14 
21,258,712 

421,378,073 

50,873,859 

7,252,124 

130,783,349 

328,956,590 

91,169,956 

84,079,754 

7,720,569 

4,435,444 

2,253,494,156 
2,531,460 
1,023,402 

225,776,10s 
21,363,477 

56,196,219 

5,156,352 

44,590,752 

164,476,195 

204,277 

66,711 

186,921,787 
11,888,792 



Urban 
Estabs. 



113 

204,851 
29,875 
42,246 
69,485 
63,245 
66 
25,109 

310,005 

1,066,756 

20,104,778 

250,670 

7,415,499 
44,755 



415,928 

334,588 
492,882 
195,662 
164,114 
112,092 

5,517,877 

24,008 

583 

360,450 
36,050 

301,714 
14,601 
75,000 



75 
508 



STATISTICAL TOPICS. 



435 



BUTTER AND CHEESE MAKING IN CANADA, 1901. 

(Census of 1901.) 



Number of factories . . 3,576 
Value of buildings 

and plant $6,164,649 

Persons employed. . . 6,886 
Aggregate working 

days. . . 1,140,702 

Salaries and wages. . . $1,464,110 

Cream for butter, in. . 3,9^6,406 

Cream for butter, lbs. 88,180,441 
Milk for cheese, IIds. . 2,296,950,966 
Cost of delivery to 

factory $717,868 



Patrons of butter fac- 
tories 76,394 

Patrons of cheese fac- 
tories 124,726 

Paid patrons for butter. $6,036,699 
" cheese.$i9,265,832 

Butter made, lbs 36,066,739 

Cheese made, lbs 220,833,269 

Value of butter made . . $7,240,972 
" cheese " . .$22,221,430 

Total value of products.$2 9,462,40 2 



WOOL PRODUCT OF THE UNITED STATES, 1905. 





Total. 


Pulled 
Wool. 


Total Prod- 
uct, 1905. 


Number of sheep, April i, 1905- ■ 

Average weight of clip, lbs 

Wool.washed and unwashed, lbs. 
Shrinkage per cent . 


38,621,476 

6.56 

253488,438 

97,967,121 










42,000,000 

32 
28,560,000 


295,488,438 




126,527,121 





SUGAR CROP OF THE UNITED STATES, 1905-1906. 

(U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.) 





Cane- 
sugar. 




Beet- 
sugar. 




Long tons. 
342,000 
210,000 
370,000 




Tons. 

73893 

66,459 

91,608 

24,214 

11.087 

14,244 

15,500 

15,915 


Porto Rico 


Michigan 


Hawaii 


Colorado 




Utah 


Total •. 


922,000 


Nebraska. . . 








Idaho 




Other States 

Total 




312,920 







436 



GENERAL TOPICS. 



IMPORTS OF SUGAR INTO THE U. S., 1901-1905. 



Country from which 
Imported. 


Annual Average, 1 901—5. 


1904-1905. 


Pounds. 


Dollars. 


Dollars. 


Percent 


Cuba 


1,871,472,328 
729,244,022 
247,401,547 
107,332,780 
153,257,225 

34,891,741 
133,248,296 
156,287,187 

83,498.287 


41,641.337 
13,112,882 
5,008,999 
2,473,910 
2,828,011 
589,061 
2,879,603 
2,579,733 
1,601,764 


64,366,104 
15,611,568 
4,403,237 
3,490,933 
1,626,078 
1,498,399 
1,460,969 
1,266,275 
1,018,208 


65 .9 


Dutch East Indies . . 

Germany* 

Santo Domingo .... 
British West Indies. 
Philippine Islands . . 

British Guiana 

Brazil 

Peru 

Other countries 


16.0 
4-5 
3.6 
1-7 
1-5 
i-S 
1.3 
1 .0 
3 












Total 


3,720,917.287 


77,439,816 


97,645,449 


100. 







* Beet-sugar; in kll other cases cane-sugar. 

STATISTICS OF BEET-SUGAR FACTORIES IN THE 
UNITED STATES FOR 1905. (U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.) 



States. 


Area 
Har- 
vested. 


Av. 

Yield of 

Beets 

per 
Acre. 


Beets 
Worked. 


Sugar 
Manu- 
factured. 


Av. 
Sugar 

in 
Beets. 


Av. 
Extrac- 
tion of 
Sugar. 


California 

Colorado 

Idaho 


Acres. 

5t.857 
85.916 
16,800 
77,823 
16,218 
27.750 
14,000 
17,000 


Tons. 
9.92 

10.19 
8.63 
6.83 
7.08 
8.02 
8.86 
8.14 


Tons. 

514,391 

875,154 

145,000 

531,475 

114,833 

222,660 

124,000 

138,400 


Tons. 
73,893.45 
91,608.45 
15,500.0 
66,458.99 
11,087.2 
24,214.0 
14.243.51 
15,915.0 


Per cent 
17.27 
14.71 
14-47 
15.65 
12.3 
14.03 
15.0 
15.78 


Percent 
14-37 
10.47 


Michigan 

Nebraska 

Utah 


12.32 

9.66 

10.87 


Wisconsin 

Other States*.. 


11-49 
II -5 


Total and av. . 


307,364 


8.67 


2,665,913* 


312,920 


15-33 


11.74 



* In which there was but a single factory. 
PRODUCTION OF CANE- AND BEET-SUGAR, 



1903-6. 



1903-1904 
1 904-1 905 
1905-1906 
1905-1906 



The World. 



Cane. 



Tons.* 
6,086,149 
6,754,328 
6,693,133 



Beet. 



13,957 269 



Tons.* 
6 096,178 
4,926,456 
7,265.136 



The United States. 



Cane. 



Tons.* 
692,903 
875.576 
922,000 



Beet. 



Tons.* 
208,135 
209,722 
283.717 



1,205,717 



* Long tons, except in case of European beet-sugar production, which 
is given in metric tons < 2 204.6 lbs.). 



STATISTICAL TABLES. 



437 



MAPLE-SUGAR AND SIRUP, AND SORGHUM SIRUP 
PRODUCED IN THE UNITED STATES, 1899. 

(Twelfth Census.) 





Sugar. 


Sirup. 


Value of Products. 




Sugar. 


Sirup. 


Maple 

Sorghum 


Pounds. 
11,928,770 


Gallons. 

2,056,61 1 

16,972,783 


Dollars. 
1,074,260 


Dollars. 

1,562,451 

5,288,083 









STATISTICS OF THE LUMBER INDUSTRY OF THE 
UNITED STATES, 1906. (U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.) 



Lumber. 



Leading 
State. 



Cut, 
M. Feet. 



Per 

Cent. 



Total 
Value. 



Mill 
Value 
per M. 
Feet. 



Yellow pine .... 

Douglas fir 

White pine 

Hemlock ....... 

Oak 

Spruce 

Western pine . . . 

Maple 

Cypress 

Poplar 

Redwood 

Red gum 

Chestnut 

Basswood 

Birch 

Cedar 

Hickory 

Total hardwoods 
" softwoods . 



La. 

U.S. 

Wash. 

U.S. 

Minn. 

U.S. 

Penna. 

U.S. 

Ky. 

U.S. 

Me. 

U.S. 

Calif.- 

U.S. 

Mich. 

U.S. 

La. 

U.S. 

Ky. 

U.S. 

Calif. 

Ark. 

U.S. 

Penna. 

U.S. 

Wise. 

U..S. 

Wise. 

U.S. 

Wash. 

U.S. 

Ark. 

U.S. 

U.S. 

U.S. 



2,1 20,615 

1 1,661,077 
3,405,510 
4,969,843 
1,664,734 

4,583,727 

966,480 

3,537,329 

339,829 

2,820,393 

557,975 

1,644,987 

347.249 

1,386,777 

492,845 

882,878 

573,096 

839,276 

160,1 23 

683,132 

659,678 

140,819 

453,678 

73,096 

407,379 

162,155 

376,838 

151,063 

370,432 

236,648 

357,845 

23,364 

148,212 

7,315,491 

30,235,245 



68 


5 


36 


2 


27 


3 


12 





33 


8 


25 





55 


8 


68 


3 


23 


4 


TOO 
31 






18 





43 





40 


8 


66 


2 


" 


8 



:::} 



$31,919, 
175,178, 
48,841, 
70.567,1 
29,072,, 
83,952, 
16,589, 
54,153, 

6,667, 
61,377, 

9,802, 
28,515, 

4,826, 
19,423, 

7,096, 
13,714, 
1 2,849, 
18,403, 

3,732, 
16,538. 
10,978, 

1,774, 
6,102, 
1,268, 
7,128, 
2,890, 
7.029, 
2,334, 
6,384. 
4,415,' 
6,484, 
902, 
4,508, 

621,151, 



636 


$15 


OS 


446 


15 


02 


166 


14 


34 


141 


14 


20 


499 


17 


46 


701 


18 


32 


522 


17 


16 


242 


IS 


31 


701 


10 


62 


266 


21 


76 


083 


17 


57 


439 


17 


33 


436 


13 


90 


937 


14 


01 


204 


14 


40 


083 


15 


53 


911 


22 


42 


392 


21 


04 


465 


23 


31 


260 


24 


21 


7 59 


16 


64 


304 


12 


60 


886 


13 


46 


989 


17 


36 


864 


17 


49 


178 


17 


82 


950 


18 


66 


163 


15 


45 


705 


17 


24 


054 


18 


66 


600 


18 


12 


201 


38 


62 


583 


30 


42 


.388 


16 


60 



438 



GENERAL TOPICS. 



POULTRY AND EGG PRODUCTS IN THE UNITED 

STATES. {Tenth to Twelfth Censuses.) 



Production of eggs, dozen. 
Price per dozen, cents. . . . 

Value of poultry. 

" eggs 

Poultry on hand, June i • 

Chickens* 

Turkeys 

Geese 

Ducks 

Total 



570. 



456,911,960 



ro2, 265,653 



1889. 



819,722,916 



258,871,125 

10.754,060 

8,440,17s 

7,544,080 

285,609,440 



:899- 



[,293,819,186 



$136, 
$144, 



23.S 
6 
5 
4 

250 



891,877 
286,158 

,508,085 
,509,367 
676,863 
,807,358 
.681,593 



* Including Guinea fowls. 

PRODUCTION OF HONEY AND BEESWAX IN THE 
UNITED STATb]S ACCORDING TO CENSUS RE- 
TURNS OF 1869, 1879, 1889, AND 1899. 



1869. 



i<S79. 



1889. 



1899- 



Honey, lbs. . . 
Beeswax, lbs. 



[4,702.815 
631,129 



25,741,485 
1.105,556 



63,894,186 
1,166,543 



,196,160 
,765,31s 



BEES, HONEY, AND WAX PRODUCED IN THE 
UNITED STATES. 

(Twelfth Census.) 

Swarms of beeS; June i, 1900 » 4,ioo,62.s 

Value of bees. . $10,186,513 

Pounds of honey produced in 1899 61,196,160 

" wax " " "_ 1,765,315 

Value of honey and wax produced in 1 899 $6664,904 



STATISTICAL TOPICS. 



439 



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muS 






440 



GENERAL TOPICS. 



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STATISTICAL TABLES. 



441 



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t^ M VO 00 t~ 



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GEN-ERAL TOPICS. 



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p 

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p 

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000 



STATISTICAL TABLES. 



443 



t^ o. o. 



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1^00 



vo'oo' 



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444 



GEiq^ERAL TOPICS. 



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STATISTICAL TABLES. 



445 





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446 



GENERAL TOPICS. 



DOMESTIC EXPORTS OF BUTTER AND CHEESE, 

1870-1905. (U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.) 




EXPORTS OF DAIRY PRODUCTS FROM CANADA, 

1870-1904. (Statistical Year-Book of Canada.) 





Butter. 1 


Cheese. 


Year. 


Quantity. 


Value. 


Quantity. 


Value. 




Pounds. 




Pounds. 




1870 


12,260,887 


$2,353,570 


5,827,782 


$ 674,486 


1875 


9,268 044 


2,337 324 


32,342,030 


3,886,226 


1880 


18,535,362 


3,058,069 


40,368,678 


3.893.366 


1885 


7 330 788 


1,430,905 


79,655,367 


8,265,240 


• 1890 


I 951 58s 


340,131 


94,260,187 


9,372,212 


1891 


3 768,101 


602,175 


106,202,140 


9,508,800 


1892 


5. 736, 696 


1,056.058 


1 18,270,052 


11,652,412 


1893 


7,036,013 


1,296,814 


133,946,365 


13,407.470 


1894 


5,534.621 


1,095,588 


154.977,480 


15,488,191 


1895 


3.650,258 


697,476 


146,004,650 


14,253,002 


1896 


5.889 241 


1,052,089 


164,689,123 


13 956,571 


1897 


II. 453-351 


2,089,173 


164, 220 699 


14,676,239 


1898 


11.253,787 


2,046.686 


196,703,323 


17.572,763 


1899 


20.139.195 


3,700,873 


139,827,839 


16,776,765 


1900 


25.259 737 


5,122,156 


185.984,430 


19 856.324 


1901 


16 335.528 


3.295 663 


195,026,307 


20,696,051 


1902 


27 855.978 


5,660.541 


200.946,401 


19,686,291 


1903 


34,128,944 


6 954.618 


229,099,925 


24,712,943 


1904 


24,568 001 


4,724,155 


233,980,716 


24,184.566 



STATISTICAL TABLES. 



447 



THE FERTILIZER INDUSTRY OF THE UNITED 
STATES. (U. S. Department of Agriculture.) 





Tons 
(of 2000 lbs.). 


Value 
(wholesale). 


Commercial fertilizers sold in 1896, 
in 23 Eastern and Central States 


1,624,063 
270,854 


$32,301,582 
5,387,287 


in rest of United States 


Total for the United States 


1,894,917 


$37,688,869 

(retail) 
11,449,069 
18,759,139 
3,067,515 
4,952,013 
241,862 


Census returns, 1890, value of fertilizers pur- 
chased: 


South Atlantic " 




North Central " 








Western " 








Total for the United States 




$38,469,598 







IMPORTS AND EXPORTS OF FERTILIZERS IN 

1896. (U. S. Treasury Department.) 



Imports. 


Exports. 


Tons. 


Value. 


Value 
per Ton. 


Tons. 


Value. 


Value 
per Ton. 


375,?33-93 


$7,376,615 


$19.04 


514,143 


$4,400,593 


S8.56 



IMPORTS OF FERTILIZERS AND FERTILIZER 
MATERIALS, 1896. 



Articles. 



Ammonia, sulfate of 

Apatite 

Ashes, wood and lye of, and beet-root ashes 

Blood, dried 

Bone-dust or animal carbon, and bone-ash, 

fit only for fertilizing purposes 

Bones, crude, burned, calcined, ground or 

steamed 

Cotton-seed meal and cake 

Guano 

Kieserite, cyanite, and kainit 

Lime : 



Oil-cake 

Phosphates, crude or native 

Potash, muriate of 

Potash, sulfate of 

Soda, nitrate of, or cubic nitrate 

All substances, not otherwise specified. 
Total... 



Tons. 



12,270.70 
434.00 



2,983.00 



325 

5,072 

67,192 

21,403 

8,911 

20,562 

43,438 

7,423 

145,456, 

40,259, 



Value. 



$480,97 
3,030 
67,394 
1,014* 

37,992 

154,610 

3,170 

52,697 

320,765 

76,302 

52,867 

153,370 

'',372,743 

269,810 

3,870,734 
460,160 



$7-376,615 



Value 
per Ton. 



$39.20 
6.98 



9.74 
10.39 

4.77 

3-57 

5-93 

7.46 

31.60 

36.34 

26.61 

"•43 



$19.04 



* In 1895. 



448 



GENERAL TOPICS. 



it 
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1 




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a 
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STATISTICAL TABLES. 



449 





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450 



GENERAL TOPICS. 



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STATISTICAL TABLES. 



451 





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452 ' GEKERAL TOPICS. 



VI. DIRECTORY. 

DIRECTORY OF OFFICIAL AGRICULTURALi 
INSTITUTIONS. 

Organization of tlie U. S. Department of Agriculture, 
Washington, D. C. 

Secretary of Agriculture — James Wilson.* 
Assistant Secretary of Agriculture — Willet M. Hays. 

Weather Bureau — Willis L. Moore, Chief. 

Bureau of Animal Industry — A. D. Melvin, Chief. 

Dairy Division — E(L H. Webster, Chief. 

Bureau o? Plant Industry — B. T. Galloway, Pathologist^ 
Physiologist and Chief. 

Bureau of Forest Service — Gifford Pinchot, Forester and 
Chief. 

Bureau of Chemistry — Harvey W. Wiley, Chemist and 
Chief. 

Bureau of Soils — Milton Whitney, Chief. 

Bureau of Entomology — L.. O. Howard, Entomologist and 
Chief. 

Bureau o? Biological Survey — C. Hart Merriam, Biologist 
and Chief. 

Bureau of Statistics — Victor H. Olmsted, Statistician and 
Chief. 

Office of Experiment Stations — A. C. True, Director. 

Office of Public Roads — L. W. Page, Director. 
* Division of Publications — Geo. Wm. Hill, Editor and Chief. 

Division of Accounts and Disbursements — Frank L. 
Evans, Chief and Disbursing Clerk. 

Library — Josephine A. Clark, Librarian. 

* Term expires March 4, 1909. 



DIRECTORY. 453 

Canada. 

Ministers of Agriculture — 

Dominion, Sydney A. Fisher, Ottawa. 

Prov. of Ontario, Nelson Monteith, Toronto. 

Prov. of Quebec, A. Tessier, Quebec. 

Prov. of British Columbia, R. G. Tatlow, Victoria. 

Prov. of Manitoba, R. P. Roblin, Winnipeg. 
Commissioners of Agriculture — 

New Brunswick, L. P. Farris, Fredericton. 

N. W. Territories, G. H. V. Bulyea, Regina. 

Pr. Edw. Island, Benjamin Rogers, Charlottetown. 
Secretary of Agriculture — 

Nova Scotia, B. W. Chipman, Halifax. 
Minister of Agriculture and Mines — 

Newfoundland, Eli Dawe, St. Johns. 



State Officials in Charge of Agriculture in the United States. 

Commissioners of Agriculture — Montgomery, Ala.; Little 
Rock, Ark.; Tallahassee, Fla.; Atlanta, Ga.; Boise, Idaho; 
Frankfort, Ky.; Baton Rogue, La.; Augusta, Me.; Helena, 
Mont.; Albany, N. Y.; Raleigh, N. C; Bismarck, N» D.; 
Santa Ft', N. M.; Harrisburg, Pa.; Manila, P. I.; San Juan, 
P. R.; Columbia, S. C; Nashville, Tenn.; Austin, Texas; 
Richmond, Va.; and Olympia, Wash. 

Secretaries of State Boards of Agriculture — Sacra- 
mento, Cal.; Fort Collins, Colo.; North Stonington, Conn.; 
Dover, Del.; Honolulu, H. I.; Springfield, 111.; Indianapolis, 
Ind.; Des Moines, la.; Topeka, Kan.; Centerville, Md.; 
Boston, Mass.; Agricultural College, Mich.; St. Paul, Minn.; 
Columbia, Mo.; Brownville, Neb.; Carson City, Nev.; Concord, 
N. H.; Trenton, N. J.; Raleigh, N. C; Columbus, Ohio; 
Guthrie, Okla.; Portland, Ore.; Providence, R. I.; Yankton, 
S. D.; W^oodstock, Vt.; Charleston, W. Va.; Madison, Wis.; 
and Cheyenne, Wyo. 

Secretary of State — Tuscon, Ariz.; Jackson, Miss.; and 
Salt Lake City, Utah. 



454 



GENERAL TOPICS. 



EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS IN THE UNITED 
STATES AND CANADA HAVING COURSES IN 
AGRICULTURE. (U. S, Department of Agriculture.) 



State. 


Name of Institution 


Locality. 


Alabama 


Alabama Polytechnic Institute. 
Agricultural and Mechanical Col- 
lege for Negroes 


Auburn 
Normal 


Arizona 


University of Arizona. . . . 








Fayetteville 
Berkelev 
Fort Collins 
Storrs 


CaUfomia 

Colorado 

Connecticut. . . . 


University of California 

State Agricultural College 

Conn. Agricultural College 


Florida 


State College for Colored Stud'ts. 


Dover 
Lake City 

Tallahassee 


Georgia 


Florida State Normal and Indus- 
trial College 

State College of Agriculture and 


Idaho 


State Industrial College 

University of Idaho. . . . 


College 
Moscow 












Lafayette 


Iowa . . 


State College of Agriciilture and 
the Mechanic Arts 

Kansas State Agricultural Col- 
lege 

Agricultural and Mechanical 


Kansas 


Ames 


Kentucky 


Manhattan 
Lexington 




State Normal School for Colored 
Students 


Frankfort 


Louisiana 


State University and Agriculturn 1 
and Mechanical College 

Southern University and Agri- 
cultural and Mechanical Col- 
lege 


Baton Rouge 
New Orleans 




The Uniyersity of Maine 

Maryland Agricultural College. .. 

Princess Anne Academy, Eastern 
Br., Maryland Agricul. Coll.. . 

Massachusetts Agricultural Col- 
lege 




Maryland 

Massachusetts. . 


College Park 
Princess Anne 
Amherst 


Michigan 


Michigan State Agricultural Col- 
lecre 


Agricultural College 


Minnesota 

Mississippi 


The University of Minnesota .... 
Agricultural and Mechanical Col- 
lege 


St. Anthony Park. 
Agricultural College 




Alcorn Agricultural and Mechan- 


West side 


Missouri 


The University of Missotiri 

Lincoln Institute 


Columbia 
Jefferson City 


Montana 


College of Agriculture and Me- 




Nebraska 

Nevada 

New Hampshire. 


The Universitv of Nebraska 

Nevada State University 

College of Agriculture and Me- 
chanic Arts 


Lincoln 
Reno 

Durham 









DIRECTORY. , 455 

EDUCATIONAL. INSTITUTIONS— (Cow/mMet^). 



State. 


Name of Institution. 


Locality. 


New Jersey. . . . 
New Mexico . . . . 


Rutgers Scientific School 

College of Agriculture and Me- 
chanic Arts 


New Brunswick 
Mesilla Park 


New York 


Cornell University 


Ithaca 


North Carolina 


College of Agriculture and Me- 
chanic Arts 


W. Raleigh 
Greensboro 
Agricultural College 


North Dakota. . 


Agricultiiral and Mechanical Col- 
lege for the Colored Race 

North Dakota Agricultural Col- 


Ohio. 


Ohio State University. . . 

Agricultural and Mechanical Col- 


Oklahoma 


Stillwater 




Agricultural and Normal Uni- 




Oregon, 


Oregon State Agricultural Col- 
lege . . .... 


Corvallis 


Pennsylvania . . 
Rhode Island. . . 


Pennsylvania State College 

College of Agriculture and Me- 


State College 


South Carolina, . 
South Dakota. .. 


Clemson Agricultural College. . . . 

Colored Normal, Industrial, Agri- 
cultural, and Mechanical Col- 
lege of South Carolina 

South Dakota Agricultural Col- 


Clemson College 

Orangeburg 

Brookings. 
Knoxville 


Tennessee. . , . . . 
Texas 


University of Tennessee 

State Agricultural and Mechan- 
ical College of Texas 




College Station 


Utah 


Prairie View State Normal School 
Agricultural College of Utah. . . . 
University of Vermont and State 


Prairie View 
Logan 


Vermont 




Virginia. 


Virginia Agricultural and Me- 
chanical College and Polytech- 
nic Institute 


Blacksburg 




Hampton Normal and Agricul- 


Hampton 

Pullman 

Morgantown 

Institute 

Madison 

Laramie 


Washington, . . . 
West Virginia. . . 

Wisconsin 

Wyoming 


The State College of Washington 

West Virginia University 

West Virginia Colored Institute . 

University of Wisconsin 

University of Wyoming 



AMERICAN VETERINARY COLLiEGES. 

California Veterinary College, San Francisco, Cal. 

National Veterinary College, Washington, D. C. 

Chicago Veterinary College, Chicago, 111. 

McKiLLiP Veterinary College, Chicago, 111. 

Veterinary Department, Iowa State Agricultural 
College, Ames, Iowa. 

School of Veterinary Medicine, Harvard University, 
Boston, Mass. 

Kansas City Veterinary College, Kansas City, Mo. 

American Veterinary College, University of the State 
OF New York, New York City. 

New York College of Veterinary Surgeons, New York 
City. 

Veterinary College, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. 

School of Veterinary Medicine, Ohio State University, 
Columbus, O, 

Veterinary Department, University of Pennsylvania, 
Philadelphia, Pa. 

Ontario Veterinary College, Toronto, Canada. 

McGiLL University, Department of Comparative Medicine, 
Montreal, P. Q., Canada. 

LilST OF STATE VETERINARIANS. 



State or 
Territory. 

Alabama. . . . 

Arizona 

Arkansas .... 
California. . . . 
Delaware. . . . 

Florida 

Georgia 

Idaho 

Illinois 

Indiana 

Iowa 

Kansas 

Kentucky. . . 
Louisiana.. . . 

Maine 

Maryland. .. . 
Massachusetts 
Michigan. . . . 
Minnesota. . . 
Mississippi. . . 

Missouri 

Montana. ... 
Nebraska. . . . , 



Post-ofifice 
Address. 



Auburn 

Phoenix 

Fayette ville 

Sacramento 

Wilmington 

Lake City 

Atlanta 

Bois6 

Princeton 

Lafayette 

Forest Ci*y 

Peabody 

Louisville 

Baton Rouge 

Saco 

Chestertown 

Boston 

Saline 

Minneapolis 

Agricul. College 

Columbia 

Helena 

Lincoln 



State or 
Territory. 

Nevada 

New Hampshire 
New Jersey. . . . 
New Mexico. .. . 

New York 

North Carolina . 
North Dakota. . 

Ohio 

Oklahoma 

Oregon 

Pennsylvania. .. 
Rhode Island. . . 
South Carolina. . 
South Dakota. . 

Tennessee 

Texas 

Utah 

Vermont 

Virginia 

"Washington. . . . 
West Virginia. . 

Wisconsin 

Wyoming 



Post-office 
Address. 



Reno 

Concord 

Trenton 

Las Vegas 

Albany 

Raleigh 

Fargo 

Columbus 

Guthria 

Portland 

Philadelphia 

Providence 

Clemson College 

Huron 

Murfreesboro _ 

Corpus Christi 

Heber City 

Morrisville 

Blacksburg 

Pullman 

Charleston 

Janes ville 

Cheyenne 



DIRECTORY. 



457 



DAIRY SCHOOLS IN THE UNITED STATES AND 
CANADA. 



State or 
Province. 



Alabama 

Colorado 

Connecticut. . . . 

Georgia 

Idaho 

Illinois 

Indiana 

Iowa 

Kansas 

Maine 

Maryland 

Massachvisetts. . 

Michigan 

Minnesota 

Mississippi 

Missouri 

Nebraska 

New Hampshire 
New York 



Location. 



Tuskegee 

Fort Collins 

Storrs 

Experiment 

Moscow 

Urbana 

Lafayette 

Ames 

Manhattan 

Orono 

College Park 

Amherst 

Agricultural Col. 

St.AnthonyPark 

Agricultural Col. 

Columbia 

Lincoln 

Durham 

Ithaca 



State or 
Province. 



North Carolina. . 
North Dakota. . 

Ohio 

Oregon 

Pennsylvania. .. 
South Dakota. . 

Texas 

Utah 

Vermont 

Virginia 

Washington. . . . 

Wisconsin 

Ontario 

Quebec 

New Brunswick 
Nova Scotia. . . 
Manitoba , 



Location. 



Raleigh 

Fargo 

Columbus 

CorvalHs 

State College 

Brookings 

College Station 

Logan 

Burlington 

Blacksburg 

Pullman 

Madison 

Kingston 

Guelph 

Strathroy 

St. Hyacinthe 

Sussex 

Nappan. 

Winnipeg 



SCHOOLS OF FORESTRY. 

Yale Forest School, Yale University, New Haven, Conn. 

BtLTMORE Forest School, Biltmore, N. C, 

University of Michigan Forest School, Ann Arbor, Mich. 

Howard University Forest School, Cambridge, Mass. 

Iowa State College of Agriculture and Mechanical 
Arts, Forestry Course, Ames, Iowa. 

University of Maine, Department of Forestry, Orono, Me. 

Michigan Agricultural College, Department of Forestry, 
Agricultural College P. O., Mich. 

University of Minnesota, Forest School, St. Anthony Park, 
Minn. 

University of Nebraska, Forest Department, Lincoln, Neb. 



458 



GENERAL TOPICS. 



AGRICULTURAL. EXPERIMENT STATIONS IN 
THE UNITED STATES. 



State. 


Location. 


Year Es- 
tablished. 


Alabama (Colleere) 


Auburn. 


1883 
1 886 






Alabama (Tuskegee) . 


Tuskegee 


1897 


Alaska. 


Sitka, Kenai, and Copi^er 
Center 






i8q9 


Arizona 


Tucson '. 


1889 




Fayetteville 


1887 




Berkeley 


1875 


Colorado 


Fort Collins 


1879 


Connecticut (State) 




1877 




Storrs 


1887 


Delaware 


Newark 


1888 


Florida. . 


Lake City 


1888 




Experiment. ...» 

Honolulu . 


1888 


Hawaii 


i8g8 


Idaho. . . . 


Moscow 


1892 
1888 






Indiana 


Lafayette 


1888 


Iowa. ... 


Ames 


1888 






1888 


Kentucky ... 


Lexington 


1885 






1885 


Louisiana (State) 


Baton Rouge. . . . 


1886 


Louisiana (North) 




1887 






1885 


Maryland 


College Park. 


1888 


Massachusetts. . . . 


Amherst 


1882 




Agricultural College 

St. Anthony Park 


1888 


Minnesota 


1888 


Mississippi . . 


Agricultural College 


1888 




1883 


Missouri (Fruit) 


Mountain G-rove . 


1900 


Montana. . . . 


Bo7eman 


1893 
1884 






Nevada 


Reno 


1888 






1886 


New Jersey (State) 


New Brunswick. . . . 


1880 


New Jersey (College) 




1888 


Mesilla Park 


1889 


New York (State) 




1882 


New York CCornell) 


Ithaca 


1879 


North Carolina 


Raleigh 


1877 


North Dakota 


Agricultural College 

Wooster 


1890 


Ohio 


1882 


Oklahoma. . . . 


Stillwater 


1890 
1888 






Pennsylvania 


State College 


1887 








Rhode Island 


Kingston ... 


1888 


South Carolina 


Clemson College 


1888 


South Dakota 




1887 






1882 


Texas 




1888 


Utah 




1890 






1886 






1888 


Washington 




1891 






1888 




Madison 

Laramie 


1883 
TS91 


Wyoming 



DIRECTORY. 



459 



Oanadiaii Kxperinient Stations. 

Central Experimental Farm — Ottawa, Ont. 

Experimental Farm — Nappan, N. S. 

" " — Brandon, Manitoba. 

" —Indian Head, N. W. T. 
" " — Agassiz, B. C. 

Experiment Station — Ontario Agricultural College, Guelph, 
Ont. 



OFFICIALS IN CHARGE OF FARMERS' INSTITUTES. 

(Fanners' Institute Specialist, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, John 
Hamilton, Washington, D. C.) 



State or 




State or 




Territory. 


Address. 


Territory. 


Address. 


Alabama 


Auburn 


Nevada 


Reno 


Alaska 


Sitka 


NewHampshire 


Concord 


Arizona 


Tucson 


New Jersey.. . . 


Trenton 


Arkansas 


Fayette ville 


New Mexico . . 


Agricultural Coll. 


California 


Berkeley 


New York 


Favette ville 


Colorado 


Fort Collins 


North Carolina 


Raleigh 


Connecticut. . . . 


N. Stonington 


North Dakota . 


Bismarck 


Delaware 


Dover 


Ohio 


Columbus 


Florida 


Lake City 


Oklahoma 


Guthrie 


Georgia 


Atlanta 


Oregon 


Corvallis 


Idaho 


Moscow- 


Pennsylvania . 


Harrisburg 


Illinois 


Springfield 


Rhode Island . 


Providence 


Indiana 


Lafayette 


South Carolina 


Clemson College 


lovva. . . .' 


Des Moines 
Manhattan 


South Dakota . 
Tennessee .... 


Gary 


Kansas 


Nashville 


Kentucky 


Frankfort 


Texas 


College Station 


Louisiana 


Baton Rouge 


Utah 


Logan 


Maine . . 


Augusta 
Benson 


Vermont. . . . 


Woodstock 


Maryland 


Virginia 


Richmond 


Massachusetts . 


Boston 


Washington . . . 


Pullman 


Michigan 


Agricultural Coll. 


West Virginia . 


Sunlight 


Minnesota 


Lynd 


Wisconsin 


Madison 


Mississippi 


Agricultural Coll. 


Wyoming 


Laramie 


Missouri 


Columbia 


Ontario, Can . . 


Toronto, Ont. 


Montana 


Bozeman 


Manitoba, Can. 


Brandon, Manit. 


Nebraska 


Lincoln 







460 GENERAL TOPICS. 



VII. AGRICULTURAL AND DAIRY LITER- 
ATURE. 

MORE IMPORTANT WORKS ON DAIRYING. 

American. 

Arnold, American Dairying. Rochester, N. Y., 1876. (Out 
of print.) 

Conn, Practical Bacteriology, N. Y., 1907, 340 pp. $1.25. 

Dean, Canadian Dairying. Toronto, 1903. 260 pp. $1.00. 

Decker, Cheese Making. Third edition. Columbus, O., 
1900, 192 pp. $1.75. 

Decker, Elements of Dairying. Columbus, O., 1903. 114 pp. 
$1.00. 

Farrington-Woll, Testing Milk and its Products. Eighteenth 
edition. Madison, Wis., 1908. 292 pp. $1.00. 

Flint, Milch Cows and Dairy Farming. Boston, 1888. 

Grotenfelt-Woll, Modern Dairy Practice. Third edition. 
New York, 1905. 286 pp. $2.00. 

Gurler, American Dairying. Chicago, 1904. 270 pp. $1.00. 

Jensen-Pearson, Essentials of Milk Hygiene. Philadelphia, 
1907. 275 pp. $2.50. 

Michels, Creamery Butter Making. Lansing, Mich., 1904. 
271 pp. $1.00. 

McKay-Larson, Principles and Practice of Butter Making. 
New York, 1906. 329 pp. $1.50. 

Monrad, ABC in Cheese Making. Winnetka, 111. Second 
edition. 68 pp. 50 cents. 

Monrad, ABC in Butter Making. Winnetka, 111., 1899. 
1 18 pp. 50 cents. 

Monrad, Pasteurization and Milk Preservation. Winnetka, 
111. 78 pp. 50 cents. 

Monrad, Cheese Making in Switzerland. Winnetka, 111. 
68 pp. 50 cents. 



AGRICULTURAL AND DAIRY LITERATURE. 461 

Peck, Profitable Dairying. N. Y., 1906. 174 pp. 75 cents. 

Russell, Outlines of Dairy Bacteriology. Seventh edition. 
Madison, Wis., 1906. 190 pp. $1.00. 

Snyder, Dairy Chemistry. New York, 1906. 190 pp. $r.oo. 

Schoenman, Butter-fat and Dividend Calculator. Madison, 
Wis., 1895. 66 pp. $2.00. 

Spargo, The Common Sense of the Milk Question. New York, 
1908. 351 pp. $1.50. 

Van Slyke, Modern Methods of Testing Milk. New York 
1906. 214 pp. 75 cents. 

Vye, Creamery Accounting. Delano, Minn., 1899. 42 pp. $r.oo. 

Willard, Practical Dairy Husbandry. N. Y., 1877. 546 pp. 

Wing, Milk and its Products. N. Y., 1897. 280 pp. 

Winslow, The Production and Handling of Clean Milk. New 
York. 1907. 207 pp. 

English. 

Fleischmann, Book of the Dairy. London, 1896. los. 6d. 

Richmond, Dairy Chemistry. London, 1899. 384 pp. 

Sheldon, Dairy Farming. London. 570 pp. 4to. 

Sheldon, The Farm and the Dairy. London, 1889. 154 pp. 
25. 6d. 

Sheldon, British Dairying. 2d ed., 1896. 170 pp. 

Aikman, Milk, its Nature and Composition. London, 1895. 
180 pp. 

Willoughby, Milk, its Production and Uses. London, 1904. 
259 pp. $2.00. 

Long, The Dairy Farm. London, 1889. 115 pp. 

Matthews, Economics in Dairy Farming. London, 1903. 
68 pp. $2.25. 

Oliver, Milk, Cheese, and Butter. London, 1894. 362 pp. 

Freudenreich, Dairy Bacteriology. London, 1895. 115 pp. 

Swithinbank and Newman, Bacteriology of Milk. London, 
1904. 605 pp. $8.00. 

Other European. 

Martiny, Die Milch, I-II. Danzig, 1871. 438 and 366 pp. 
Martiny, Kirne und Girbe. Berlin, 1895. 404 pp., 4to. 
Martiny, Milchwirtschaftl. Taschenbuch. Published annually. 
Leipzig. ' 



462 GENERAL TOPICS. 

Fleischmann, Das Molkereiwesen. Braunschweig, 1876. 
1074 pp. 

Fleischmann, Lehrbuch d. Milchwirtschaft. Fourth edition. 
Leipzig, 1908. 536 pp. 

Stohmann, Die Milch- und Molkereiproducte. Braunschweig, 
1898. 1031 pp. 

Kirchner, Handbuch d. Milchwirtschaft. Fifth edition. 
Berlin, 1907. 700 pp. 

Anderegg, Geschichte der Milchwirtschaft. Zurich, 1894. 
207 pp. 

V. Klenze, Handb. d. Kaserei-Technik. Bremen, 1884. 643 pp. 

Fugling, Praktische Kaserei. Bremen, 1892. 260 pp. 

Weigmann, Die Methoden der Milch-conservirung. Bremen, 
1893. 72 pp. 

Duclaux, Le Lait. Paris, 1887. 336 pp. 

Duclaux, Principes de Laiterie. Paris. 370 pp. 

Leze, Les Industries de Lait. Paris, 1891. 647 pp. 

Pouriau, La Laiterie. 5th ed. Paris, 1895. 898 pp. 

Boggild, Malkeribrugct i Danmark. Third edition. Copen- 
hagen, 1907. 627 pp. 

A LIST OF SIXTY AGRICULTURAL AND HORTICUL- 
TURAL BOOKS. 

Hunt, How to Choose a Farm. N. Y., 1906. 412 pp. 

Bailey, Principles of Agriculture. N. Y., 1898. 300 pp. 

Fream, Elements of Agriculture. 4th ed. London, 1892. 
486 pp. 

Webb, Advanced Agriculture. London, 1894. 672 pp. 

Goff-Mayne, First Principles of Agriculture. N. Y., 1904. 
248 pp. 

James-Craig, Practical Agriculture. N. Y., 1900. 203 pp. 

Storer, Agriculture in some of its Relations with Chemistry. 
7th ed. N. Y., 1897. 3 vols. 

Voorhees, First Principles of Agriculture. N. Y., 1896. 212 pp. 

Roberts, The Fertility of the Land. N. Y., 1897. 415 pp. 

Voorhees, Fertilizers. N. Y., 1899. 335 pp. 

Warington, Chemistry of the Farm. 9th ed. London, 1902. 
160 pp. 



AGRICULTURAL AND DAIRY LITERATURE. 463 

Johnson, How Crops Feed. N. Y. 375 pp. 
Johnson, How Crops Grow. N. Y., 1890. 416 pp. 
Hunt, Cereals in America. N. Y., 1904. 421 pp. 
Plumb, Indian Corn Culture. Chicago, 1S95. 250 pp. 
Woll, A Book on Silage. Revised ed. Chicago, 1900. 234 pp, 
Allen, American Cattle. N. Y., 1881. 528 pj). 
Wallace, Farm Live Stock. Edinburgh, 1889. 35° pp. 
Craig, Judging Live Stock. 4th ed. Des Moines, la., '02, 

193 PP- 

I luir.b, Types and Breeds of Farm Animals. N. Y.,'o6, 563 pp. 

Shaw, Animal Breeding. N. Y., 1903. 406 pp. 

Day, The Horse, How to Breed and Rear Him. 2d ed. 
London, 1890. 453 pp. 

Roberts, The Horse. N. Y., 1903. 401 pp. 

Curtis, Horses, Cattle, Sheep, and Swine. College Station, 
Texas, 1888. 269 pp. 

Armsby, Manual of Cattle Feeding. N. Y., 1887. 525 pp. 

Henry, Feeds and Feeding. Madison, Wis., 1903. 657 pp. 

Jordan, Feeding Animals. N. Y., 1901. 450 pp. 

Stewart, The Domestic Sheep. Chicago, 1898. 372 pp. 

Randall, Practical Shepherd. N. Y., 1863. 452 pp. 

Coburn, Swine Husbandry. N. Y., 1888. 311 pp. 

Harris, On the Pig. N. Y., 1889. 318 pp. 

Collingwood, The Business Hen. N. Y., 1904. 125 pp. 

L. Wright, Book of Poultry. London, i8gi. 591 pp. 

Cook, Bee-keeper's Guide. Lansing, Mich., 1884. 4th 
ed. 337 PP- 

Law, Farmer's Veterinary Adviser. Ithaca, N. Y., 1880. 
426 pp. 

Reynolds, Veterinary Studies. 328 pp. St. Anthony Park, 
Minn., 1903. 

Hilgard, Soils. N. Y., 1906. 593 pp. 

King, Physics of Agriculture. Madison, Wis., 1904. 604 pp 

King, The Soil. N. Y., 1903. 303 pp. 

Waring, Drainage for Profit and Health. N. Y. 252 pp. 

Elliott, Land Drainage. N. Y. 232 pp. 

Poore, Rural Hygiene. London, 1893. 321 pp. 

Wilcox, Irrigation Farming. N. Y., 1902. 494 pp. 



464 GEls^ERAL TOPICS. 

Bailey et al., Cyclopedia of American Horticulture, 4 vols. 
N. Y., 1902. 

Goff, Principles of Plant Culture. 2d ed. Madison, Wis., 
1898. 276 pp. 

Bailey, The Nursery Book. 2d ed. N. Y., 1892. 304 pp. 

Fletcher, How to Make a Fruit Garden. N. Y., 1905. 

-Landreth, Market Gardening and Farm Notes. N. Y., 1893. 

215 PP- 

Card, Bush-Fruits. New York, 1899. 549 pp. 

Fuller, Grape Culturist. N. Y. 281 pp. 

Henderson, Practical Floriculture. N. Y., 1891. 325 pp. 

Weed, Insects and Insecticides. Hanover, N. H., 1891. 
281 pp. 

Lodeman, The Spraying of Plants. N. Y., 1908. 399 pp. 

Gifford, Practical Forestry. N. Y., 1902. 284 pp. 

Jarchow, Forest Planting. N. Y., 1893. 237 pp. 

Halsted, Barn Plans and Outbuildings. N. Y., 1903. 385 pp. 

Farm Buildings. Chicago, 1905. 185 pp. 

Adams, The Modern Farmer. San Francisco, 1899. ^^2 pp. 

Roberts, The Farmers' Business Handbook. N. Y., 1903. 
300 pp. 

Taylor, Agricultural Economics. N. Y., 1905. 327 pp. 

Bennett, Farm Law. Portland, Me., 1880. 120 pp. 



AMERICAN DAIRY PAPERS. 

American Cheese-Maker. Grand Rapids, Mich. Monthly, 
50 cents. 

Chicago Dairy Produce. Chicago, 111. Weekly, $1.50. 

Creamery Journal. Waterloo, la. Monthly, $1.00. 

Creamery Patron. Decorah, Iowa. 

Dairy Record, St. Paul, Minn. Weekly, $1.00. 

Elgin Dairy Report. Elgin, 111. Weekly, $1.00. 

The Jersey Bulletin and Dairy World. Indianapolis, Ind. 
Weekly, $1.00. 

Hoard's Dairyman. Fort Atkinson, Wis. Weekly, $1.00. 

Holstein-Friesian Register. Brattleboro, Vt. Semi-monthly, 
$1.50. 



AGKICULTURAL AND D.iIRY LITERATURE. 465 

Holstein-Friesian World, Ithaca, N. Y. Semi-monthly, 50 
cents. 

Kimball's Dairy Farmer. Waterloo, la. Semi-monthly, 50 
cents. 

The Milk Reporter. Deckertown, N. Y. Monthly, $1.00. 

New York Produce Review and American Creamery. New 
York City. Weekjy, $1.00. 

Practical Dairyman. New York City. Weekly, $1.00. 

Pacific Dairy Review. San Francisco, Cal. Weekly, $1.00. 

Canadian Dairyman, Toronto. Monthly, $1.00. 



MAIN FOREIGN DAIRY PAPERS. 

The Dairy. 144 Fleet Street, London, England. Monthly, 3s. 

The Dairyman. 17 New Castle Street, Farringdon St., Lon- 
don, England. 

The Dairy World and British Dairy Farmer. 310 Strand, 
London, England. Monthly, 3s. 

Nordisk Mejeri-Tidning. Stockholm, Sweden. Weekly, 5 kr. 

Malkeritidende. Odense, Denmark. Weekly. 

Milch-Zeitung. Leipzig, Germany. Weekly, 11.60 mk. 

Milchwirtschaftliches Zentralblatt. Leipzig, Germany. 
Monthly, 18.40 mk. (with Milch-Ztg.). 

Deutsche Molkerei-Zeitung. Berlin, Germany. Weekly, 9.20 
mk. 

Molkerei-Zeitung. Hildesheim, Germany. Weekly, 6 mk. 

Oesterreich. Molkerei-Zeitung. Vienna, Austria. Semi- 
monthly, 6 mk. 

L'Industrie Laitiere. ^^ Rue J. J. Rousseau, Paris, France. 
Weekly, 20 fr. 

La Laiterie. 18 Rue des Martyrs, Paris. Bi-weekly, 13 fr. 

Schweizerische Molkerei Zeitung. Zurich. Weekly, 6.60 fr. 

Die Milch Industrie. Berne, Switzerland. 

Revue Generale du Lait. Brussels. Semi-monthly, 16 fr. 

New Zealand Dairyman, Wellington, N. Z. Monthly, 6s. 6d. 



466 GENERAL TOPICS. 



MAIN AMERICAN AGRICULTURAL AND 
HORTICULTURAL PAPERS. 

American Agriculturist. New York City. Weekly, $i.oo. 

American Bee Journal. Chicago, 111. Weekly, $i.oo. 

American Cultivator. Boston, Mass. Weekly, $2.50. 

American Farm World. Augusta, Me., 'and Chicago, 111. 
Monthly, 15 cents. 

American Fertilizer. Philadelphia, Pa. Monthly, $2.00. 

American Gardening. New York City. Semi-monthly, $1.00. 

American Grange Bulletin. Cincinnati, O. Weekly, $1.00. 

Am.erican Hay, Flour and Feed Journal. N. Y. Monthly, 
$1.00. 

American Poultry Journal. Chicago, 111. Monthly, $1.00. 

American Sheep Breeder and Wool Grower. Chicago, 111. 
Monthly, $1.00. 

American Sugar Industry and Beet-sugar Gazette. Chicago. 
Semi-monthly, $2.50. 

American Swine Herd. Chicago, 111. Monthly, 50 cents. 

American Thresherman. Madison, Wis. Monthly, $1.00. 

American Veterinary Review. New York City. Monthly, 
$3.00. 

Acker- und Gartenbau Zeitung. Milwaukee, Wis. Weekly, 
$1.00. 

Breeders' Gazette. Chicago, 111. Weekly, $2.00. 

California Cultivator and Poultry Keeper. Los Angeles, CaL 
Monthly, $1.00. 

Chicago Live Stock World. Chicago, 111. Daily, $3.00. 

Colman's Rural World. St. Louis, Mo. Weekly, $1.00. 

Connecticut Farmer. Hartford, Conn. Weekly, $1.50. 

The Country Gentleman. Albany, N. Y. Weekly, $2.50. 

Country Life in America. N. Y. Monthly, $4.00. 

The Dakota Farmer. Aberdeen, S. D. Semi-monthly, $1.00. 

Drover's Journal. Chicago, 111. Weekly, $1.50. 

Farm and Fireside. Springfield, O. Semi-monthly, 50 cents. 

Farm and Home. Chicago, and Springfield, Mass. Semi- 
monthly, 50 cents. 

The Farmer. St. Paul, Minn. Semi-monthly, 50 cents. 

Fann Implement News. Chicago. Weekly, $2.00. 



AGRICULTURAL AND DAIRY LITERATURE. 467 

The Farmers' Advocate. London, Ont. Semi-monthly, 
$i.oo. 

Farmer's Call. Quincy, 111. Weekly, 50 cents. 

Farmers' Guide. Huntington, Ind. Weekly, 75 cents. 

The Farmers' Tribune. Sioux City, la. Weekly, $1.00. 

Farmers' Review. Chicago, 111. Weekly, $1.25. 

The Fanner's Voice. Chicago, 111. Weekly, $1.00. 

Farm, Field, and Fireside. Chicago, 111. Weekly, $1,00. 

Farm News. Springfield, Ohio. Monthly, 50 cents. 

Farm, Stock, and Home. Minneapolis, Minn. Semi-monthly, 
50 cents. 

Farmers' Institute Bulletin. Fayetteville, N. Y. Monthly, 
$1.00. 

Farming. N. Y. Monthly, $1.00. 

Farming World. Toronto, Canada. Weekly, $1.00. 

The Farm Journal. Philadelphia, Pa. Monthly, 50 cents. 

Florida Agriculturist. De Land, Fla. Weekly, $2.00. 

Flour and Feed. Milwaukee, Wis. Monthly, $1.00. 

Garden Magazine. N. Y. Monthly, $1.00. 

Gardening Chicago, 111. Semi-monthly, $2.00. 

Horse Review. Chicago, 111. Weekly, $2.00. 

Indiana Farmer. Indianapolis, Ind. Weekly, $1.00. 

The Homestead. Des Moines, la. Weekly, $1.00. 

Irrigation Age. Chicago, 111. Monthly, $2.00. 

Journal of Agriculture. St. Louis, Mo. Weekly, $1.00. 

Journal of Agriculture and Horticulture. Montreal, Canada, 
Monthly, $1.00. 

Kansas Farmer. Topeka, Kan. Weekly, $1.00. 

Kentucky Stock Farm. Lexington, Ky. Weekly, $2.00. 

Live Stock Journal. Chicago, 111. Weekly, $1.00. 

Live Stock Report. Chicago, 111. Weekly. 

Louisiana Planter and Sugar Manufacturer. New Orleans, 
La. Weekly, $3.00. 

Massachusetts Ploughman, Boston. Weekly, $2.00, 

Michigan Farmer. Detroit, Mich. Weekly, $i.oo„ 

Mirror and Farmer. Manchester, N. H. Weekly $1.00. 

Montana Stockman and Farmer. Helena, Mont. Semi- 
monthly, $2.00. 



4G8 GENERAL TOPICS. 

National Stockman and Farmer. Pittsburgh, Pa. Weekly, 
$1.50. 

Nebraska Farmer. Lincoln, Neb. Weekly, $1.25. 

New England Farmer, Boston, Mass. Weekly, $2.00. 

New England Homestead. Springfield, Mass. Weekly, $1.00. 

Northwestern Agriculturist. Minneapolis, Minn. Semi- 
monthly, 50 cents. 

Ohio Farmer. Cleveland, Ohio. Weekly, $1.00. 

Ohio Poultry Journal. Dayton, Ohio. Monthly, $1.00. 

Orange Judd Farmer. Chicago, 111. Weekly, $1.00. 

Pacific Rural Press. San Francisco, Cal. Weekly, $3.00. 

Poultry Husbandry. Waterville, N. Y. Monthly, 50 cents. 

Practical Farmer. Philadelphia, Pa. Weekly, $1.00. 

Prairie Farmer. Chicago, 111. Weekly, $1.00. 

Ranch. Seattle, Wash. Semi-monthly, $1.00. 

Rural Californian. Los Angeles, Cal. Monthly, $1.50. 

P.ural New Yorker. New York City. Weekly, $1.00. 

Southern Cultivator. Atlanta, Ga. Monthly, $1.00. 

Southern Planter. Richmond, Va. Monthly, $1.00. 

Successful Poultry Journal. Chicago, 111. Monthly, 50 cents. 

Sugar-beet. Philadelphia. Quarterly, $2.00. 

Swine-Breeders' Journal. Indianapolis, Ind. Semi-monthly, 
$1.00. 

Twentieth Century Farmer. Omaha, Neb. Weekly, $1.00. 

Texas Stockman. San Antonio, Tex. Weekly, $1.00. 

Turf, Field, and Farm. New York City. Weekly, $5.00. 

Wallace's Farmer. Des Moines, la. Weekly, $1.00. 

Western Swine-breeder. Lincoln, Neb. Monthly, 50 cents. 

Wisconsin Agriculturist. Racine, Wis. Weekly, 50 cents. 

Wool Markets and Sheep. Chicago, 111. Weekly, $1.00. 



INDEX. 



Aberdeen Angus cattle, 24 

Accidents, what to do in case of, 377 

Acidity of milk or cream, determination of, by alkaline tablet test, 304 

Manns' test, 306 
Acre-foot of water, 177 
Adulteration of milk, 267 
Advanced register of_ American cattle clubs, requirements for admission, 

241 
Age of farm animals, determination of, 36 
Agricultural and dairy literature, 460 

horticultural books, list of, 462 

papers, main American, 466 
Agricultural associations, constitution of, 359 

books, a list of, 462 

clubs, constitutions and by-laws of, 359 

crops, rank of states in production of, 448 

educational institutions in the United States and Canada, 454 

engineering, 161 

experiment stations in the United States and Canada, 458 

imports and exports, 1 904-1 905, 439 

population, number, and classification, 417 

products, average farm price of, 1890-1905, 426 
rank of states in value of, 448 

schools and colleges in the United States, 454 

wages in the United States, 424 
Agriculture, officials in charge of, in the U. S., 453 
Alkaline tablet test of acidity in milk or cream, 304 
American trotter, the, 21 

agricultural colleges, 454 

experiment stations, 458 

dairy schools, 457 

schools of forestry, 457 

soils, chemical composition, 146 

veterinary colleges, 456 
Apples, seasons of varieties, in various storages, 94 
Arbor Day, dates of, in dififerent states and territories, 139 
Ash of cows' milk and colostrum, composition of, 251 
Atavism, 52 
Ayrshire cattle, 222 



470 IKDEX. 



Babcock milk test, the, 252 

application of, 254 

points to be watched, 253 
Baltimore Canned Goods Exchange, standards of, 102 
Barley, commercial grades of, 405 
Barnyard manure, 152, 153 

composition, 155 
Beef cattle, 24 

proportion of, to live weight of cattle, 206 
Bees, honey, and wax produced in the United States, 438 
Beet-sugar production in the United States, 1901-1903, 436 
Berkshire swine, 27 

Board of Health (N. Y.) lactometer, 254, 255 
Boiler, care of, 286 

power, 289 
Bordeaux mixture, 121 

Boyd, John, Boyd's process of cream-ripening, 301 
Breed tests of cows, Columbian, 1893, 238 

St. Louis, 1904, 239 
Breeds of live stock, characteristics of, 21 

registered live stock in U. S., 428 
dairy cattle, 429 
Breeders' Associations, co-operative, Constitution , 367a 
Brown-Swiss Cattle, 234 
Butter, 295 

American premium, analyses of, 308 

by deep, cold setting and Cooley system, 303 
shallow-pan creaming, 303 

cheese and condensed-milk factories in the United States, 43/ 

commercial grades of, 309 

composition of, 307 

conversion factor for calculating yield of, 311 

domestic exports of, 1870-1905, 446 

English scale of points for judging, 317 

factories in the United States, statistics of, 434 

fat, highest record for 24 hours, 239 
■ official records, 240 
standard of purity, government, 265 

foreign samples of, composition of, 308 

fresh, composition of, 308 

from separator cream, 304 

foreign, analyses of, 308 

formula for calculating yield of, 311 

loss of, through inefficient skimming, 28s 

makers, score in judging proficiency of, 317 

making, 295 

distribution of milk ingredients in, 316 
use of pure cultures in, 297 

milk, composition of, 273 

milk required for making i lb. of, 315, 316 

overrun, the sliding-scale, 314 



IKDEX. 471 

Butter, records, official, 240 

salted, composition of, 308 

score for judging, 316 

sliding-scale overrun, 314 

sour cream, composition of, 307 

standard of purity, government, 265 

standards for, 262 

sweet cre?am, composition of, 307 

unsalted, composition of, 308 

yield from cream of different richness, 311 

milk of different richness, 314, 346 
By-laws and rules for co-operative cheese factories, 354 

creamery associations, 351 
Caldwell, Prof. W. H., Guernsey cattle, 214 
California weir table, 182 
Canada, area and population, 411 

butter and cheese-making in, 435 

dairy schools, 459 

experiment stations, 459 

exports of dairy products, 1870-1904, 446 

meteorological data, 416 

Ministers and Commissioners of Agriculture 453 

number of farm animals, 1901, 427 

production of various crops, 1901, 425 

veterinary colleges, 458 
Planned Goods Exchange, Baltimore, standards, 102 
Carcass, a steer's, 204 

of farm animals, constituents of, 209 
Cattle, breeds, 24 

clubs, American, requirements for admission to advanced registers, 
241 

determination of age of, 28 

diseases of, 57 

live weight, estimation of, 35 

market classes, 30 

proportion of beef to live weight 206 
the various parts of, 208 

pure bred, used for dairying, in the United States, 429 
Cattle foods, classification, 11 

comparative value, 19 
Centrifvigal skim-milk, per cent fat in, 280 
Cereals, prevention of smut in, 129 

prices per bushel and per ton, 20 
Cheddar cheese, formulas for finding yield of, 331 

commercial grades of, 3360 

losses in curing, 333 

manufacture of, 319 
Cheese, butter, and condensed-milk factories in the United States in 

1900, 434 
Cheese, composition, 329, 330 

curing-rooms, determination of humidity in, 326 



473 , INDEX. 



Cheese, domestic exports of, 1870-1905, 446 

factories, co-operative, by-laws and rules for, 354 
in the United States, statistics of, 434 
management 338 

whey to be allowed patrons of, 337 
loss in weight during curing, 333 
manufacture of, 319 
market of the United States, 336a 
score for judging, 329 
standard of purity, government, 265 
Cheese making, distribution of ingre^nts, 330 

fertilizing ingredients, 331 
use of pure cultures, 297 
synopsis of manufacture of principal varieties, 336 
varieties and analyses, 330 
yield from 100 lbs. of milk, 332, 334 
Chester|White pigs, 27 
Cheviot sheep, 26 

Chinch-bugs, fighting the, by means of kerosene emulsion, 130 
Cisterns, capacity of, 182, 183 
Clark, W. G., M.D.C., Common diseases of farm animals, 53 

Veterinary remedies and doses, 63 
Cleveland Bay horses, 22 
Clover, winter-killed, replacing, 82 
Clovers, notes on adaptability and uses, in 
Clydesdale horses, 22 
Coins, foreign, value of, 409 

Cold storage, temperatures for dairy products in, 318 
Colostrum, composition of, 251 

ash, composition of, 251 
Components of cows' milk, calculation of, 250 

Composite samples of milk, directions for taking and preserving, 338 
Composition and weight of ordinary crops per acre, 80 
of ash of cows' milk and colostrum, 251 
butter, 307, 308 
colostrum, 251 

commercial fertilizing materials, 154 
cows' milk, variations in, 249 
cream, 273 
dairy products, 273 
dairy salt, 318 

different parts of same milkings, 249 
feeding-stuffs, i, 3t 6 
live animals, 208 
milk of different breeds, 242 
morning and evening milk, 249 
morning, noon, and evening milk, 249 
sweet- and sour-cream butter, 307 
various kinds of milk, 248 
Concentrated feeding-stuffs, weight of, 18 
Condensed milk, composition, 273 



INDEX. 473 

Condensed-milk, butter, and cheese factories in the United States, 434 
Constitution and by-laws of agricultural clubs, 359 
breeders' associations, 367a 
dairy test associations, 3676 
road leagues, 366 

village-improvement societies, 364 
Contagious diseases, rules for treatment in case of, 71 
Conversion factor for calculating yield of butter, 311 

of U. S. weights and measures to metric, and vice versa, 389, 391 

foreign money to dollars and cents, 410 
table for calculating fertilizing ingredients, 160 

pounds of milk into quarts, and vice versa, 269 
Cooling milk or cream, water or ice required, 294 
Corn, cost per acre of raising, 426 

commercial grades of, 403 
Com on the cob, measurement of, in cribs, 397 
Cost of irrigating canals and ditches, 180 
raising wheat and com, per acre, 426 
Cotswold sheep, 26 
Cotton, average cost per acre, 426 
Cows, buying and selling by tests of their milk, 244 
care of, 245, 272, 350 
diseases of, 57 
See also under Dairy Cows 
Craig, Prof. John A., Characteristics of breeds of live stock, 21 
Cream, application of viscogen, 292 
calculation of per cent fat in, 275 
composition of, 273 
formula for diluting, to a desired fat content, 279 

finding fat content of, 278 
gatherers, instructions to, 356 
ice required for cooling, 294 
of different fat contents, relative value of, 270 

yield of butter from, 311 
preservation of, by heat, 290 

quantity of water or ice required for cooling, 294 
relative value of, 269a 
ripening, Boyd's process of, 301 
separators, capacity of, 282 
economy of, 281 
handling and care of, 279 
list of, 276 

power required for skimming 1000 lbs. milk, 281 
standard of purity, government, 265 
standards for, 262 
standardization of, 286 
use of alkaline tablet test with, 304 
yield from milk of different richness, 274 
Creameries and cheese factories, directions for making dividends in, 345 

suggestions to patrons of, 349 
Creamery associations, co-operative by-laws and rules for, 351 
management of, 338 



474 INDEX. 



Crops, farm, enemies of, lai 

field, important data as to, 74, 77 
fertilizing materials in, 150, 151 
soiling, 81, 82, 84 
various yields per acre, 91 

weight and average composition of, per acre, 80 
Culverts, sizes of drain-pipe required for, in proportion to capacity and 

fall, 169 
Curd test, the Wisconsin, 322 
Curing of cheese, losses in, 333 

rooms, humidity in, 326 
Cuts of meat, diagrams of, 204, 205 
Dairy breeds, composition of milk from, 242 
results of tests of, 237-241 
cattle, origin and characteristics of breeds 211 
pure-bred, in the United States 429 
cows, 211 

advanced register of, requirements for admission, 241 

methods of judging the value of, 243, 244 

pure-bred average per cent of fat and production, per breed: 

242 
rations for, 12, 14, 16 
size of silo for different number of, 86 
soiling crops for 84 

yield of milk and fat from, 236, 239, 242 
farms, regulations for the government of, 7 1 
papers, American, 464 
main foreign 465 
products, American analyses of, 24S 
composition of 273 
exports of, from Canada 1 868-1 904, 446 

the United States, 1870-1905, 446 
fertilizing ingredients in, 251 
legal standards for. 262 
standards of purity, government, 264 
temperatures for cold storage of, 318 
rules, fifty, 244 
salt, analyses, 318 

schools in the United States and Canada, 457 
statistics for the United States, 1900, 432 
test associations, constitution, 367& 
Dairies and dairy farms, regvilations for the government of, 71 
Dairying, 211 

more important works on, 460 

pure-bred cattle, used for, in the U. S., number and value, 429 
Dates of killing frost, 413 

Days between dates within two years, number of, 384 
Decker, Prof. John W., How American cheese is made, 319 
Dentition of farm animals, 36 
Detection of bad milk, 322 
Devon cattle, 230 



INDEX. 475 



Dewey, L. H., Table of noxious weeds, ii6 
Dew-point, table of, 327 
Dietaries, 196 

daily, calculation of, 196 
Dietary standards, 196 

stvidies, American, summary, 203 
Digestion coefficients, 2 

Dimensions, interior, of farm buildings, 191 
Directory of official agricultural institutions, 452 
Diseases of farm animals, 53 
Disinfectants, list of, 70 
Disinfection of stables, rules for, 71 
Distance table for planting vegetables, 88 

tree-planting, 90, 138 
Ditches, open, number of acres drained by, 166 

Dividends, directions for making, in creameries and cheese factories, 345 
Dorset sheep, 26 

Doses, veterinary, graduation of, 63 
Drainage systems, points to note in planning, 169 

Draining of area of land by tiles, removing i in. depth ,of water in 24 
hours, 165, 170 
area of land by open ditches, 166 
land, reasons for, i6r 
Drains, of various dimensions, earth removed for, 171 

advice to landowners about to construct, 168 
Duroc-Jersey swine, 27 
Durum wheat, commercial grades, 403 
Dutch belted cattle, 232 
Duty of water, 176 
Economy, pecuniary, of food, 200 
Egg products in the U. S., 1879-99, 437 
Eggs, loss in weight, during incubation, 46 
Engine management, 289 
Engineering, agricultural, 161 
English milking trials, results of, 241 
Essex swine, 27 
Exhaustion of fertilizers, 156 

Exhibition purposes, preservation of soft fruits for, 100 
Experiment stations, agricultural, in the U. S. and Canada, 458 
Exports, agricultural, in the U. S., 1904-1905, 439 

domestic, of butter and cheese, 446 
Fair tests of dairy cows, 239, 243 
Farm, transportation on the, 189 
Farm animals, body temperature of, 38 

characteristics of breeds of, 21 

common diseases of, 53 

constituents of carcass, 209 

determination of age of, 36 

estimated number on farms and ranches, 1905, 430 

feeding-standards for, i? 



476 IN^DEX. 



Farm animals, food requirements of, i8 
gestation period, average, 39 
heat in, duration and frequency, 38 
in Canada in 1901, 427 
in the United States in 1 870-1 900, 427 
live, composition of, 208 
market classes of, 28 
Farm buildings, interior dimensions of, 191 
crops, enemies of, 121 
products, fertilizing constituents of, 147 
cost of hauling, 188 
yield of, per acre, 81 
Farmyard manure, amount required to replace ingredients abstracted 
by various crops, 152 
composition, amount, and value, 153, 155 
Farmers, forestry for, 131 

Farmers' institutes, ofificials in charge of, 459 
Farming population of the United States, 417 

approximate losses of fertilizing materials in different systems, 145 
Farms in the United States, statistics concerning, 419 
Farrington, Prof. E. H., The alkaline tablet test for acidity in milk or 

cream, 304 
Fat content of milk from pure-bred cows, 242 
Fat, relation of, to casein and other solids of milk, 250 
Fattening animals, comparative results obtained with, 207 
Feeding and general care of poultry, 41 
standards for farm animals, 12 
stuffs, chart showing manurial value of, 147 
composition of, i, 3, 6 
comparative value of, 19 
concentrated, classification, 11 

weights of, 18 
fertilizing constituents, 147, 148 
manurial value, 147 

ready reference table of composition, 6 
valuation of, 20 
Feed rations, calculation of components of, 14 
Fermentation tests, 322, 324 
Femow, Prof. B. E., Forestry for farmers, 131 
Fertilizer industry of the United States, 447 

laws, states having, 158 
Fertilizing constituents of feeding-stuffs and farm products, 147, 148 
materials, commercial, composition, 154 
conversion table for calculation, 160 
equivalent quantities of, 157 
in dairy products, 251 
different crops, 151 
in raw materials and chemicals, trade value of, 159 
losses of, in different systems of farming, 145 
. voided by animals, 153 



. IN^DEX. 477 

Fertilizing materials withdrawn by various crops, 150, 151 
Fertilizers, 145 

commercial, composition, 154 
exhaustion of, 156 
imports and exports, 447 
industry of the U. S., 447 
valuation of, 158 
Field crops, 74 

important data as to, 77 
Fish N. S., Brown-Swiss cattle, 234 

Flag signals adopted by the U. S. Weather Bureau, explanation of, 368 
Flaxseed commercial grades of, 406 
Food economy, 195 
fuel value, 194 
Foods, human, 193 

Food materials, human, composition of, 197. 198 
nutrients furnished for 25 cents in, 201 
pecuniary economy of, 200 
Forcing calendar, a vegetable, 93 
Foreign coins, value of, 409 
Forestry, 131 

for farmers, 131 
schools of, 457 
Forest fire laws in the United States, 140 
Formaldehyd treatment for the prevention of smut of cereal grains and 

of potato scab, 127, 129 
Formulas for calculation of total solids in milk, 25 S 
yield of butter, 311 
converting degrees Centigrade or Reaumur to Fahrenheit, 

and vice versa, 395 
diluting cream to a desired fat content, 279 
finding adulteration of milk, 267 
fat content of cream, 278 
quantity of water or ice required for cooling milk 

or cream, 294 
yield of Cheddar cheese, 331 
Frederiksen, J. D., Handling and care of cream separators, 279 
French coach horses, 22 ^ 

Frost, killing, dates of average and actual, 413 
Fruit and vegetable garden, a combined, 92 
Fruit packages, kinds of, 94 
Fruit trees, distances apart, 90 
longevity, 90 

time required to bear fruit, 90 
Fruits, soft, preservation of, for exhibition purposes, 100 
calculated value of, compared with hay, grains, etc., 19 
temperatures for preserving, 100 
Fuel value of food materials, 194 

of woods, 136 
Fungous diseases of plants treatments for 121 
Galloway cattle, 24 



478 INDEX. 



Gardener's planting table, 88 
Gardner, M. H., Holstein-Friesian cattle, 218 
Gerber fermentation test, the, 324 
Germination standards of seeds, 109 
of vegetable seeds, time of, 90 
Gestation calendar, 39 

period in farm animals, 39 
GofT, Prof. E. S., Treatments for insect and fungous diseases, 12; 
Government land measures, 396 

standards of purity for milk and its products, 264 
Grades of butter, commercial, 309 
grain, commercial, 401 

barley, 405 

com, 403 

durum wheat, 403 

flaxseed, 406 

oats, 404 

rye, 405 

wheat, 401 
hay and straw, 406a 
Grades per 100 ft., and their square roots, 164 
Grain, commercial grades of, 401 
Grains, prices of, per bushel and per ton, 20 
Grass seeds, amounts to sow per acre, 109 

number, weight, and cost of, 109 
Grasses, notes on adaptability and uses of, iii 
Guernsey cattle, 214 
Gurler, H. B., Butter-making, 295 
Hackney horses, 22 
Hampshire sheep, 25 
Hand separators, list of, 276 
flauling farm products, cost of, 188 
Hawks and owls, beneficial and harmful, 370 
Hay in mows or stacks, reckoning amount and value of, 397 
Hay, commercial grades of, 406a 

seed mixtures for, 75 
Heat in farm animals, duration and frequency, 38 
Hemp ropes, strength of, 309 
Herd milk, ranges in composition of, 268 
Hereditv, 48 
Hereford cattle, 24 

Hicks, Gilbert H., Seed-testing for the farmer, 104 
Highland sheep, 27 

Hills, number of, on an acre of land, 87 
Hog cholera, suppression of, 67 
Holidays, legal, 375 
Holstein-Friesian cattle, 218 

Honey and beeswax in the United States, production of, 438 
Horse, determination of age, 36 



i 



li^DEX. 479 



Horse, labor done by, 189 
Horse-power, 290 

required for discharge of given quantities of water, 176 

separating 1000 lbs. of milk, 281 ^ 

Horses, dentition of, 38 
diseases of, 53 

heavy, 22 

light, 21 

market classes of, 28 
Horticulture, 88 
Horticultural books, a list of, 462 

products, best temperatures for preserving, 100 
Hot-water treatment for smut, 127, 128 
Human foods, 193 

composition, 198 
Humidity in cheese-curing rooms, 326 

relative, in curing-rooms, table showing, 327 
Hurricane warnings, 369 
Ice required for cooling milk or cream, 294 
Ice-cream, standard of purity, government, 266 
Imports, agricultural, in the U. S., 1904-1905, 439 

of stigar into the United States, 436 
Inches reduced to decimals of a foot, 390 
Incubation, loss in weight of eggs during, 46^ 
Industry groups in the United States, 424 
Indian com, commercial grades of, 403 
Insects, injurious, treatments for, 121 
Interest tables, 382 
Irrigated land in farms, value of, 178 
Irrigating canals and ditches, cost per mile, 180 ■ 
Irrigation, 176 

efficiency of windmills for. 173, 181 

pipes, carrying capacity, 179 
cost of, 180 
Jersey cattle, 211 
Kephir, composition of, 270 
Kerosene emulsion, 122, 130 

Kilograms converted into pounds avoirdupois, 390 
Koumiss, composition, 270 

standard of purity, government, 266 
Lactometer, 254 

scales, comparison of, 255 
Land, acres of appropriated, vacant, and reserved, in the U. S., 417 

measures, government, 396 
Legal holidays, 375 
Legal standards for dairy products, 262 

weights of grain, seeds, etc., 40^ 
Leicester sheep, 26 
Lincoln sheep, 26 
Live animals, composition of, 210 



480 li^'DEX. 



Live mineral matters in loo parts, 210 
Live stock, characteristics of breeds of, 21 

registered, breeds and number of, in the U. S., 428 
Live weight of cattle, estimation of, 28 
London purple, 122 
Loss of butter from inefficient skimming, 285 

cheese in curing, 333 
Losses of fertilizing materials in different systems of farming, 145 
Lumber industry of the U. S., statistics, 437 
Main pipe, rule for obtaining size of, 163 
Manila ropes, strength of, 390 
Manns' test, direction for use, 306 
Manure, amount and quality produced by stock, 152 

amount required to replace ingredients abstracted by various crops, 
152 
Manures and fertilizers, 144 

composition, amount, and value of, from different farm ani- 
mals, 152, 153 
valuation of, 158 
Manurial value of feeding-stuffs, 147, 148 

Maple sirup, specific gravity, sugar content, and boiling-point, 96 
production of, in the United States, 1899, 437 
sugar obtained from, 97 

production of, in the United States, 1905-1906, 435 
Market classes of farm animals, 28 
Marschall rennet test, 319 
Maturity table for vegetable seeds, 90 
Meat, diagrams of cuts, 204, 205 
Merino sheep, 25 

Mineral matters in 100 parts of live animals, 210 
Milch cows, diseases of, 57 
Milk, adulteration, 267 
ash, composition, 251 

average composition, with variations, 249 
bad, detection of, 322 
calculations of components, 250 
total solids, 258 
care of, 246 
composition of, from different breeds, 242 

different parts of the same milkings, 249 
various kinds, 248 
cream, butter-fat, and butter, comparative prices, 314 
fertilizing ingredients in, 251 
gatherers, instructions to, 356 

ingredients, distribution of, in butter-making, 316 
cheese -making, 331 
measures, prices of, 2690 

modified, amounts nf cream or skim-milk used in making, 270 
morning and evening, composition of, 240 
morning, noon, and evening, composition of, 249 
of different fat contents, relative value of, 270 
payment of, at creameries and cheese factories, 340 



INDEX. 481 

Milk, power required for skimming looo lbs., 281 

preservation of, by heat, 290, 293 

price of, per 1000 lbs., 343 

prices, by measures 272a 

products, standards of purity for, 266 

quantity of water or ice required for cooling, 294 

records, official, 240 

relation of fat to casein, and other solids of, 250 

relative cheese value of, 334 

required for making one lb. of butter, 315, 316 

rules for handling, 272 

skimming and watering of, 267, 268 

solids, calculation of, 250, 258 

solids, calculation of specific gravity of, 261 

specific gravity of, temperature correction tables for, 256 

standards, 262 

standards of purity, government, 264 

standardization of. 271 

table for converting potmds of, into quarts, 269 

quarts of, into pounds, 269 

finding average per cent of fat in, 347 

testing, a chapter on, 252 

use of alkaline tablet test with, 304 

variation in composition, 268 

watering of, 267 

yield and composition of, of different breeds, 243 
Milking trials, English, results of, 241 

rules for, 245 

utensils, care of, 247 
Milkings, composition of different parts of same, 249 
Miner's inch, 177 
Money, conversion table, 410 
foreign, value of, 409 
order fees, 386 
Monrad rennet test, the, 319 
Mutton, diagrams of cuts, 205 

sheep, 25 
Nails, cut, table of, 192 
New York Board of Health lactometer, comparison with Quevenne 

lactometer, 255 
Nitrate of soda, prices of, on the ammoniate basis, 160 
Nitrogen voided by animals, 153 
Noer, J., M.D., What to do in case of accidents, 377 
Noxious weeds, table of 116 
Number of plants for an acre of ground, 86, 87 

trees on an acre, 135 
Nutrients, 193 

furnished for 25 cents in food materials, 201 
Nutritive ratio, 2 
Oats, commercial grades of, 404 
Oat-srnut, prevention of, 127 - 



483 INDEX. 



Official milk- and butter-fat records, 240 

Orchard-spraying outfit, a cheap, 126 

Ounces reduced to decimals of a foot, 390 

Oxford sheep, 26 

Overrun of butter, 309, 314 

Pasteurization of milk and cream, 290 

Pastures, permanent, seed mixtures for, 75 

Patents, how issued, 371 

Patrons of creameries, rules for, 356 

Patrons of cheese factories and creameries, suggestions to, 349 

Payment of milk at creameries and cheese factories, 340 

Percheron horses, 23 

Perishable goods, temperatures injuring, 98 

Pickrell, J. H., Shorthorns as dairy cows, 224 

Pipes, carrying capacity of, 179 

cost of, for irrigation, 180 

straight, flow of water through, 179 
Plant diseases, treatments for, 121 

food, proportion recommended for different crops, 158 
Planting table, a gardener's, 88 
Plants, temperatures injurious to, 99 
Plants, number of, for an acre of ground, 86, 87 
Plowing, performance of team in, 189 
Poisoning, antidotes in cases of, 380 
Poland China swine, 27 

Population, agricultural, number and classification, 417 
Pork, diagram of cuts of, 205 
Postage, domestic, 385 

foreign, 38s 
Potatoes, relation of specific gravity, dry matter, and starch content 

of, 95 
Potatoes, prevention of scab, 129 
Poultry and egg products in the United States, 1 879-1 899, 437 

breeds of, 47, 48 

feeding and care of, 41 

period of incubation, 38 

standard weights of, 47 
Pounds converted into kilograms, 390 
Power required for discharge of water, 176 

to raise water fr9m deep wells, 180 

separators, list of, 276 
Precipitation, normal, in Canada, 416 

the United States, 415 
Preservation of horticultural products, best temperatures for, 100 
milk and cream by heat, 290 
soft fruits for exhibition purposes, 100 
Preservatives for soft fruits for exhibition purposes, 102 
Prevention of oat-smut, 127 

smuts of cereal grains and potatoes, 129 
Pumps, capacities of, 181 
Pure cultures, use of, in butter- and cheese-making, 297 



INDEX. 483 



Purity standards of seeds, io6 
Qucvenne lactometer, 255 
Rainfall, 172 

Rations for dairy cows, practical, 14, 16 
standard, 12 
farm animals, 12 
Reciprocals of numbers, 392 
Record, highest, for yield of fat, 239 
Records, milk- and butter-fat, official, 240 
Red-polled cattle, 227 
Rennet tests, 319 

Richards, H. B., Dutch belted cattle, 232 

Richter, Prof. A. W., Steam boiler and engine management 286 
Road leagues, constitution of, 366 
Road-making, 183 
Roads, drainage, 183 

Roads, different kinds of, force recfuired to draw a load.on 185 186 
good, importance of, 185 
gravel for, 1 84 
repairs, 184 

stone required for maintenance of, 190 
Ropes, strength of, 399 

Russell, Prof. H. L., Preservation of milk and cream by heat, 290 
Rye, commercial grades of, 405 
Salt, American dairy, analyses of, 31 8 
Second-foot of water, 177 
Seed mixtures for grass and clover, 75 

hay and permanent pastures 76 
quantity required per acre, 74, 77 
testing for the farmer, 104 
vegetable, quantity required per acre, 90 
Seeds, 104 

germination standards, 109 

grass, number, weight, cost, and amount to sow per acre 109 
purity, 105 
purity standards, 106 

vegetable, time of germination and maturity table 90 
vitality, 113 
weights, legal, 400 
seedsmen's, 114 
Separator skim-milk, per cent fat in, 280 
Shaw. Prof. Thomas, Heredity, 48 
Sheep, breeds, 25 

determination of age of, 36 
diseases of, 61 
fine-wooled, 25 
market classes of, 32 
mutton, 25 

proportions ot the various parts of, 208 
Shire horses, 23 



484 II^DEX. 



Shorthorn cattle, 24, 224 
Shropshire sheep, 25 

Silos, cylindrical, horizontal feeding area for different sized herds, 85 
capacity of, 85 

relation between size of, and number of cows they will keep, 86 
Sirup, sorghum, obtained from juice of different densities, 97 
Sisson, L. P., Devon cattle, 230 
Skim-milk, composition of, 273 

per cent fat in, 280 
Skimming of milk, detection of, 267 

inefficient, loss of butter caused by, 285 
Slope, rise per 100 feet, 171 
Smith, J. McLain, Red-polled cattle, 227 
Smut of cereal grains, prevention of, 129 

oats, prevention of, 127 
Sodium nitrate, prices of, on the ammoniate basis, 160 
Soiling crops adapted to Northern New England states, 81 
succession of, for dairy cows, 84 
time of planting and feeding, 82 
Soils, American, analyses of, 146 
Solids of milk, calculation of, 258 
sp. gr. of, 261 
tables for obtaining, from specific gravity and per cent of fat, 260 
Sorghum sirup obtained from juice of different densities, 97 

produced in the United States, 1899, 437 
Southdown sheep, 25 
Specific gravity of buttermilk, 273 
cream, 273 
maple sirup, 96 
' milk, 249 

milk solids, 261 
potatoes, 95 
skim -milk, 273 
various substances, 407 
woods, 136 
temperature correction tables for, of milk, 256 
Spraying calendar, 123 

outfit for orchards, 126 
Standard rations for farm animals, 12, 14 

varieties of poultry, 47 
Standards for dairy products, 262 
of purity of seeds, 106 

for milk and its products, government, 264 
Standardization of cream, 286 

milk, 272 
Starch content, dry matter, and sp. gr. of potatoes, relation of, 95 

equivalent, 2 
Statistical tables, 411 

Steam boiler and engine management, 286 
Steers, diagram of carcass, 204 



INDEX. 485 



Steers, live and dressed weights of, 206 

proportions of the various parts of, 206 
Sterilization of milk and cream, 290, 293 
Storm and hurricane warnings, 369 
Straw, commercial grades of, 406a 
Sub-humid region, 178 
Suffolk horses, 23 

sheep, 26 
Sugar in the United States, production, 436 

factories in the U. S., statistics of, 436 

imports, 1901-1905, 436 
Swine, breeds, 27 

determination of age by their teeth, 36 

diseases of, 62 

live weight and gains made, 207 

market classes of, 32] 

plague, suppression of, 67 

proportions of the various parts of, 208 
Tainted milk, causes of, 322 
Tam worth swine, 27 
Tanks, capacity of, 182 

Temperature correction tables for specific gravity of milk, 256 
Temperature of the air, normal mean, in Canada, 416 

the United States. 412 
farm animals, normal, 38 
Temperatures injuring perishable goods, 98 

for preserving horticultural products, 100 

injurious to plants, 99 
Test associations, dairy, constitution, 367b 

Testing milk and other dairy products by Babcock's method, 252 
Tests of dairy breeds at American experiment stations, 237 
British Dairy Farmers' Assoc, 241 
La. Purchase Exposition, 239 
World's Columbian Exposition, 238 
Thermometer scales, comparisons of, 393 
Thoroughbred horse, the, 21 
Tile, limit of size to grade and length, 172 
Tile draining land, reasons for, 161 

pipe of main drain, size required, 163 
Tiles, discharge of, on different grades, 164 

number required per acre, table showing, 162, 163 

of acres drained by, of different diameters and per cent 
grade, 164, 165 

size required for drainage, 162, 163 
Tires, wide, efifect of, 190 
Tractive force required for carriages, 185 

of horses at different speed, 186 
effect of inclination on, 187 
surface on, 188 
Trade values of fertilizing ingredients, 159 
Transportation on the farm, 189 



486 INDEX. 



Tree-planting, distance table, 138 

Trees, number on an acre, 135 

Trotter, the American, 21 

Tuberculin tests, directions for making, 69 

United States, agricultural experiment stations in, 458 

imports and exports, 1904-1905, 439 
population, classification of, 418 
products, prices of, 1890-1905, 426 
schools and colleges, 454 
wages, 1893-1895, 424 
area and population ,411 

areas of appropriated, vacant, and reserved land in, 417 
bees, honey, and wax produced, 438 
beet-sugar factories in, statistics oi, 436 

production, 1903-1906, 436 
breeds and number of registered live stock, 428 
butter, exports, 1 870-1 905, 446 

factories, statistics of, 434 
cattle, pure-bred, used for dairying, number and value, 429 
cereal products, principal, 1850-1900, 425 
cheese factories, statistics of, 434 

exports, 1870-1905, 446 
comparison of leading industries, 416 
condensed-milk factories, statistics of, 434 
cost per acre of raising wheat, corn, and cotton, 1893, 426 
crops, principal, statistics of, 420, 425 
dairy schools 457 

statistics for 1900, 432 
Department of Agriculture, organization, 452 
educational institutions, 454 
farming population, 417 
farmers' institutes, officials in charge, 459 
farms in, number of, and their value, 418 
farms, statistics concerning, 419 
fertilizer industry, 447 

imports and exports, 1896, 447 
forestry schools, 457 
industry groups in, 424 

live-stock interests, veterinary and sanitary officers in charge of, 456 
number and value of farm animals, 1870-1900, 427 
of farm animals, 1903, 430 
of farms in, and their value, 418 
of pure-bred cattle used for dairying, 429 
of registered live stock, 428 
officials in charge of agriculture, 453 
poultry and egg product, 1880-1900, 437 
precipitation, normal, 415 
production and value of principal crops, 425 
production of honey and beeswax, 438 
rank of states in as to value of agricultural products, 448 
soils, analyses of, 146 



INJ)EX. 48? 



United States, statistics of butter, cheese, and condensed-milk factories 

statistics of farms, 410 

principal cn^ps, 1905, 420 
sugar crop in the United States, 1 905-1 906, 435 
imports, 1 901-1905, 436 

production of beet- and cane-, 1903-1906, 436 
temperature of the air, normal mean, 412 
value of principal farm products, 425 
veterinary colleges in, 456 
wages, agricultural, 1 893-1 895, 424 
wool product, 435 
Valuation of feeding-stuffs, 20 

manures and fertilizers, 158 
Value of foreign coins, 409 
Veal, diagram of cuts, 205 
Vegetable and fruit garden, a combined, 92 
Vegetable forcing calendar, a, 93 
Vegetable seed required per acre, 90 

time of germination and maturity table, 90 
Vegetables, usual distances for planting, 72 
Veterinary colleges, American, list of, 456 
remedies and doses, 63 
science, 53 
Victoria swine, 25 

Village-improvement societies, constitution of, 364 
Viscogen, 292 
Vitality of seeds, 113 
Wages, agricultural, in the United States, 1S93-1895, 424 

by the week and the day, table of, 383 
Wagon tires, wide, effect of, 190 
Water, acre-foot of, 177 

carrying capacity of pipes, 179 

duty of, 176 

flow through straight pipes, 179 

miner's inch, 177 

power required for discharge of, 176 

to raise, from deep wells, iSo 
required for cooling milk or cream, quantity, 294 
right, 176 
second-foot, 177 
Watering of milk, detection of, 267 

and skimming, detection of, 268 
Weather Bureau, the, explanation of flag signals adopted by, 36S 

services, state, list of headquarters of, 370 
Weeds, 116 

noxious, table of, 116 
Weight of cattle, estimation of, 35 

eggs, loss in, during incubation, 46 
Weights of poultry, standard, 47 



488 INDEX. 



Weights and measures, 387 

conversion table, 380, 391 
customary system of, 387 
metric system of, 388 
Weights, legal, of grain, seeds, etc., 114, 400 

seedsmen's customary, per bu. ot seeds, 114 
Weir table, the California, 182 
Wheat, cost per acre, of raising, 426 

commercial grades of, 401 , 

Wheeler, Prof. Wm P., Feeding and general care of poultry, 41 
Whey, composition of, 273 

standard of purity, government, 266 

to be allowed patrons, 337 
Whitewash, recipe for, 191 
Wind, force and velocity of, 173 
Windmills, capacity, 173, 174, 181 

economy, 175 

square feet and acres irrigated by, 173 
Winslow, C. M., Ayrshires, 222 
Winter-killed clover, replacing, 82 
Wire ropes, strength of, 399 
Wisconsin cttrd test, 322 
Woods, fuel value and specific gravity, 136 
Wool product of the United States, 1905, 4,35 
World's Columbian Exposition, results of breed tests at, 238 
World's Fair, St. Louis, results of breed tests at, 239 
Yield of butter, formula for calculating, 311 

from 100 lbs. cream of different richness, 311 

Cheddar cheese, formula for calculating, 331 

cheese from 100 lbs. of milk, 332. 334 

fat, highest record, 239 

milk and fat from dairv cows, 237 

of dairy breeds, 237-242 
Yields, average, per acre of various crops, 87, 91 
Yorkshire swine, 27 



SEF 34 J90eJ 







vV'riJ 



